Government schemes and incentives for promotion of entrepreneurship

Government schemes and incentives for promotion of entrepreneurship

The various important incentives and subsidies available to the small scale industrial units are listed below:

· Capital Investment Subsidy Scheme Offered by Central
Government
One of the policy measures designed for the development of backward areas is provision of capital investment subsidy. Under this scheme , a subsidy will be granted on the capital investment. A grant of 10% of the capital invested in industrial units is available in the areas notified y the Central and State
Governments.

· Sales Tax Exemptions
New small scale units located in places outside some specified distance from the cities, are eligible to get sales tax concessions and exemption. Interest Free Sales Tax Loan is given for the first five years of commencement of production, which is recoverable in 3 equal annual instalments from 6th year
onwards. Some products like life saving drugs and essential chemicals are exempted from sales tax. In order to boost small scale sector, the Government has reduced sales tax on different items, as package of incentive.

· Provision of Seed Capital
The financial institutions provide a sum towards marginal money to obtain loan. The initial capital helps the poor but deserving entrepreneurs to enter into business and industry.

· Provision of Concessional Power and Water
New units started in the notified backward areas are eligible to get power as well as water at concessional rates in order to have uninterrupted production.

· Purchase of raw materials
Scarce raw materials like iron & steel, coke, match wax, potassium chloride, caustic soda, fatty acids etc. are produced and supplied to SSI Units.

·Allotment of Industrial Sheds
Work shed is the basic infrastructure required for an industry. The Government allots work sheds to the entrepreneurs. At present, in our country, there are mainly two agencies offering this facility to the
entrepreneurs. They are :
(i) Directorate of Industry and Commerce.
(ii) Small Industries Development Corporation (SIDCO).

· Export Incentives and Subsidies
With a view to boost the export market and earn foreign exchange, the Government is granting subsidies to the units exporting goods.

· Subsidy for Power Generators
In many states, the industrial units suffer from power shortages, power shedding and fluctuation problems. Hence, the government is giving loans to purchase “Generators” to solve the power problems. The entrepreneurs can obtain this subsidy on easy terms and install a generator in their units.

· Special Incentives to Women Entrepreneurs
Special incentives are offered to Women entrepreneurs who would like to join in the manufacturing line. Government agencies as well as private voluntary agencies also do provide various assistances including vocational training to women.

· Exemption from Stamp Duty
Government example the entrepreneurs from paying stamp duty for the registration of plots allotted to them by the State-owned financial institutions.

·Special Concessions to Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe Entrepreneurs
As per current provisions, SC/ST entrepreneurs need not pay 25% of the margin money requirements. They have to pay just 10% as margin money for availing the financial assistance. There is also reduction in the rate of interest to the extent of 1.5% provided the units are started in the notified backward
areas.

· Preferential Purchase from SSI Units
The Government of India had reserved more than 900 items for the exclusive production of SSI units in accordance with Industrial Policy Resolutions. In the interest of growth of small scale units, Government departments make preferential purchases from this sector. The SSI units are also given price preference up to a maximum of 15% in the case of items purchase from both small and large scale units.

SWOT

SWOT ANALYSIS
A  comprehensive  study  of  the  internal  and  external  environment  is  an important  part  of  the  strategic  planning  process.  Environmental  factors  internal to  the  firm  usually  can  be  classified  as  strengths  (S)  or  weaknesses  (W),  and those  external  to  the  firm  can  be  classified  as  opportunities  (O)  or  threats  (T). Such  an  analysis  of  the  strategic  environment  is  referred  to  as  a  SWOT analysis.

STRENGTH 
A  firm‘s  strengths  are  its  resources  and  capabilities  that  can  be  used  as  a basis  for  developing  a  competitive  advantage.  Examples  of  such  strengths include: -  Brand  name -  Good  reputation  among customers -  Cost  advantage -  Competitive quality -  Accessibility  to distribution  networks.

Weakness
The absence of certain strengths may be viewed as a weakness. For example, each of the following may be considered weaknesses:
- Unpopular brand
- Poor reputation among customers.
- High cost
- Lack of access to distribution network.


Opportunities 

The external environmental analysis may reveal certain new opportunities for profit and growth. Some examples of such opportunities include:
- An unfulfilled customer need
- Arrival of new technologies
- Loosening of regulations
- Removal of international trade barriers.

Threats

Changes in the external environmental also may present threats to the firm. Some examples of such threats include:
- Shifts in customer tastes away from the firm‘s products - Emergence of substitute products
- New regulations
- Increased trade barriers

Export and Import policies of Fisheries Sector

Export and Import policies of Fisheries Sector

Exim policy 

The exim policy of Foreign Trade Policy is a set of guidelines and instructions established by the DGFT(Directorate General of foreign trade) in matters related to the import and export of goods in India. and is regulated by the Foreign Trade Development and Regulation Act, 1992. 

   DGFT is the main governing body in matters related to Exim Policy. The main objective of this Act is to provide the development and regulation of foreign trade by facilitating imports into, and augmenting exports from India, thereby creating favourable balance of payment positions. This Act has replaced the earlier law known as the imports and Exports (Control) Act 1947. Indian EXIM Policy contains various policy related decisions taken by the Government in the sphere of foreign trade, i.e., with respect to imports and exports from the country and more specifically, export promotion measures, policies and procedures related thereto. Trade Policy is prepared and announced by the Central Government (Ministry of Commerce).

Promotional Measures of Exim Policy 2004-2009

The Government of India has set up several institutions whose main functions

are to help an exporter in his work. It would be advisable for an exporter to

acquaint him with these institutions and the nature of help that they can

provide so that he can initially contact them and have a clear picture of what

help he can expect of the organized sources in his export effort. Some of

these institutions are as follows.

- Export Promotion Councils
- Commodity Boards
- Marine Products Export Development authority
- Agricultural & Processed Food Products Export Development Authority
- Indian Institute of Foreign Trade
- India Trade Promotion Organization (ITPO)
- National Centre for Trade Information (NCTI)
- Export Credit Guarantee Corporation (ECGC)
- Export-Import Bank
- Export Inspection Council
- Indian Council of Arbitration
- Federation of Indian Export Organizations
- Department of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics
- Directorate General of Shipping
- Freight Investigation Bureau

.Duty Exemption / Remission Schemes of Exim Policy

The Duty Exemption Scheme enables import of inputs required for export
production. It includes the following exemptions.

Duty Drawback:- The Duty Drawback Scheme is administered by the
Directorate of Drawback, Ministry of Finance. Under Duty Drawback scheme,
an exporter is entitled to claim Indian Customs Duty paid on the imported
goods and Central Excise Duty paid on indigenous raw materials or
components.

Excise Duty Refund:- Excise Duty is a tax imposed by the Central
Government on goods manufactured in India. Excise duty is collected at
source, i.e., before removal of goods from the factory premises. Export goods
are totally exempted from central excise duty.

Octroi Exemption:- Octroi is a duty paid on manufactured goods, when they
enter the municipal limits of a city or a town. However, export goods are
exempted from Octroi.

Duty Remission Scheme: It enables post export replenishment/remission of
duty on inputs used in the export product.

Duty Entitlement Pass Book (DEPB)
The objective of DEPB Scheme is to neutralize the incidence of basic custom
duty on the import content of the exported products.

Duty free Replenishment certificate(DFRC)
Under this scheme, import incentives are given to the exporter for the import
of inputs used in the manufacture of goods without payment of basic customs
duty. Duty Free Replenishment Certificate (DFRC) shall be available for
exports only up to 30.04.2006 and from 01.05.2006 this scheme is being
replaced by the Duty Free Import Authorization (DFIA)

Duty Free Import Authorisation(DFIA)
Effective from 1st May, 2006, Duty Free Import Authorisation is issued to allow
duty free import of inputs which are used in the manufacture of the export
product (making normal allowance for wastage), and fuel, energy, catalyst
etc., which are consumed or utilized in the course of their use to obtain the
export product. Duty Free Import Authorisation is issued on the basis of
inputs and export items given under Standard Input and Output Norms(SION).

Export Promotion Capital Goods Scheme (EPCG) of Exim Policy 2004- 2009
Introduced in the EXIM policy of 1992-97, Export Promotion Capital Goods
Scheme(EPCG) enables exporters to import machinery and other capital
goods for export production at concessional or no customs duties at all. This
facility is subject to export obligation, i.e., the exporter is required to guarantee
exports of certain minimum value, which is in multiple of total value of capital
goods imported.
Capital goods imported under EPCG Scheme are subject to actual user
condition and the same cannot be transferred / sold till the fulfillment of export
obligation specified in the licence. In order to ensure that the capital goods
imported under EPCG Scheme, the licence holder is required to produce
certificate from the jurisdictional Central Excise Authority(CEA) or Chartered
Engineer(CE) confirming installation of such capital goods in the declared

premises.

Broad Based Extension System ( BBE )

Broad Based Extension System ( BBE )

(Introduced under Tamil Nadu Agricultural Development Project – TNADP)
This system has been introduced in Tamil Nadu State from 1.4.1991. Government of
Tamil Nadu has entered into an agreement with World Bank through Government of India for
implementing the project for seven years from 1991.

Need for Broad Based System
The Training and Visit system recognised the farm family approach rather than ‘crop
approach’ and ‘area approach’. In irrigated areas the village extension workers have full time
job because the agricultural crops occupy 9-10 months in a year. In dryland the village extension
workers do not have full time opportunities since the crops occupy 4-6 months. The messages
delivered to the farmers were crop oriented and less importance was given to allied activities.
How broad based extension is an important over T & V System?
This system aims at rectifying the defects. Role of subject matter specialist is amplified
and they are invited to formulate messages suitable to their land based activities. The village
extension workers will have full time job by offering messages during lean season. The concept
of broad based education lies in formulating and delivering composite messages to the farmers to
meet the needs of their full agricultural environment.

Principles of broad based extension
1. Adoption of an integrated farming systems approach for the generation of relevant composite
messages.
2. Broadening the range of subjects from agricultural crops to all allied subjects.
3. Improvement of the effective communication of the farming community.
4. Introduction of resource based planning down to sub-division level.
5. Encourages participation of non-governmental organisation in all agricultural extension
activities.

Objectives of the broad-based extension
1. To increase the farm income.
2. To solve problems of the farming community.
3. To make extension system more cost effective.
4. To upgrade the quality of the extension workers.
5. To popularise integrated farming system approach.

Scope of the broad based extension system
The activities of all land based departments will be unified in the long run. Duplication
of efforts and unhealthy competitions will be avoided. Agricultural department offers full
support to the activities of all the line departments.
Methodology: Broad based extension system help the farmers in getting multiple message
needed to improve their overall economy besides helping to grow agricultural crops. Thus, the
farmers are encouraged in sericultural activities, growing good fodders, animal husbandry
activities and growing fish in the farm ponds etc. These activities enable the farm community to
get extra income.

Need for the broad-based extension: This system was formed to encourage the activities of the
farmers. Different departments compete with one another and they have proposed to increase the
staff component to contact as many farmers as possible. World Bank and Government of India
thought to utilise the well established extension agency and bringing all extension and land based
activities together.

Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) (1982)

Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) (1982)

The need for introducing specific programmes for the development of poor women was
felt. Many progarammes were launched for them. One such programme formulated and
launched since September 1982 in DWCRA.

It aims at motivating and assisting women to engage themselves in a productive activity
for earning a substantial income as well as to improve the quality of their own and children’s life.
Thus, though the economic activity is the priority, the social betterment of the women and their
children is also aimed at. It is partly supported by UNICEF and is jointly financed by Union and
State Governments. It operates in conjunction with IRDP and TRYSEM.
The main features of this programme are:

(i) Women of identified poor families are organised into groups of 15-20 each for taking up
income generating activities suited to their skills and aptitude.
(ii) Group members are given training usually under TRYSEM.
(iii)One time grant of Rs.15, 000 is provided for each group as revolving fund for purchase of
raw materials, marketing, child care etc. This amount is shared equally by Union and
State Government and UNICEF.
(iv)Each group selects one of its members as group organiser who is to help women in the
selection of economic activities suited to their skills and aptitude, procurement of raw
materials etc.
(v) Besides engaging in economic activity, each group is expected to be recipient of benefits
of other development and welfare programmes.
(vi)Multi-purpose centre are being set up to serve as the central place for the working of
women groups.

The list of income-generating activities undertaken under the scheme are: tailoring,
embroidery, ready-made garments, pickle making, papad making, bakery, candle making, soap
making, chalk making, envelop making, match box making, knitting, weaving, basket making, agarbathi making, poultry, dairy, piggery, goat rearing, bee keeping, mushroom production, fruit
and vegetables processing, etc.

Agricultural technology management agency (ATMA)

Agricultural technology management agency (ATMA)

Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA) is one of the innovations
technology dissemination components of National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) functions as a registered society at District level and serves as a focal point for integrating
research and extension activities and helps in decentralizing the management of agricultural
technology transfer. The members of ATMA include the representatives of Department of
Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Horticulture, and Fisheries. Each research-extension unit would
retain its institutional identity and the management committee of ATMA would plan extension
activities. At present ATMA is in operation in twenty-four district spread over six states viz.,
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Maharashtra, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh.

Objectives
The objectives of ATMA are:
1. To strengthen research – extension – farmer linkages
2. To provide an effective mechanism for co-ordination and management of activities of
different agencies involved in technology adaption / validation and dissemination at the
district level and below.
3. To increase the quality and type of technologies being disseminated.
4. To move towards shared ownership of the agricultural technology system by key
shareholders.
5. To develop new partnerships with the private institutions including NGOs.
Constitution

Under ATMA, there is a provision for Governing Board which functions as a policy
making body and provides guidance as well as reviews progress and functioning of ATMA. A
separate Management Committee constituted under ATMA would be responsible for planning
and reviewing of the day to day activities. The composition and key functions of Governing
Board and Management Committee as per ICAR (1998), NATP document are given below.
ATMA Governing Board
Composition
1. District magistrate / Collector                     Chairman
2. Chief Executive Officer (CEO)                  Vice-Chairman
3. Joint Director / Deputy Director (Agri.)     Member
4. A member from ZRS / KVk                            " 
5. One farmer representative                               "
6. One livestock producer                                    "
7. One horticulture farmer                                   "
8. Representative of women farmer interest group              "
9. One SC/ST farmer representative                   "
10. A Representative of NGO                             "
11. Lead Bank Officer of the District                  "
12. A representative of NGO "
13. Representative of Input Supply Association  "
14. Representative if Input Supply Association    "
15. Project Director of ATMA                               "
16. One Fisheries / Sericulture representative       Member-Secretary-Cum Treasurer member


Key functions:
The Key function of ATMA Governing Board would include the following functions
and tasks.
1. Review and approve strategic and annual work plans that are prepared and submitted by
the participating units.
2. Receive and review annual reports carried out by the participating units, providing
feedback and direction to the participating units, a needed, about the various research and
extension activities being carried out within the district.
3. Receive and allocate project funds to carry out priority research, extension and related
activities within the District.
4. Foster the organization and development of farmer's interest groups and farmers
organization within the district.
5. Facilitate the greater involvement of private sector and firms and organizations in providing
inputs, technical support, agro-forestry and marketing services to farmers.
6. Encourage agriculture lending institutions to increase the availability of capital to
resource poor and marginal farmers, especially children and women farmers.
7. Encourage each line department, plus the KVK and ZRS to establish farmer advisory
committee to provide feedback and input into their respective research and extension
programme.
8. Enter into contract and agreements as appropriate to promote and support agricultural
development activity within district.
9. Identify other sources of financial support that would help ensure the financial
sustainability of ATMA and its participating units.
10. Establishing revolving funds / accounts for each participating unit, and encourage each
unit to make available technical services, such as artificial insemination or soil testing, on
a cost recovery basis moving towards full cost recovery in a phased manner.
11. Arrange for the periodic audit of ATMA's financial accounts and
12. Adopt and amend the rules and by-laws for the ATMA.


Key functions
The key functions and taks to be carried out by the ATMA management committee
would include the following:
1. Carry out periodic Participatory Rural Appraisal to identify the problems and constraints
faced by different socio-economic groups and farmers within the district.
2. Prepare an integrated, strategic technology plan for the district that would specify short
and medium term adaptive research as well as technology validation and refinement and
extension priorities for the district, these priorities should reflect the important farmer's
constraints, identified during the PRA.
3. Prepare annual work plans that would be submitted to ATMA Governing Board for
review position, modification and approval.
4. Maintain appropriate project accounts for submission to technology dissemination unit
for audit purposes.
5. Coordinate the execution of this annual work plan through participant line departments,
ZRS, KVKs, NGOs, FIGs /FOs and allied institutions, including private sector firms.
6. Establish coordinating mechanism at the block level, such as Farmer Advisory Centre,
that would integrate extension and technology transfer activities at the block and village
levels.
7. Provide annual performance reports to the Governing Board outlining the various
research, extension and related activities that were actually carried out, including target
achieved.
8. Provide secretariat to governing board and initiate action or policy direction, investment

decision and other guidance received from the board.

Salient Features of ATMS
1. Creating Farmer Advisory Committee to improve feed back.
2. Using NGOs to organize farmers.
3. Encouraging private sector involvement in technology transfer.
4. Validation and refining technologies through research units in the district.
5. Bottom up planning procedure.
6. Increased use of Information Technology (ARIS, WWW)
7. In-service training to increase staff competence.
8. Developing new Public-Private partnerships.

Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)

Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)

Objective
The objective of Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) is to provide sustainable
income to the rural poor. The program aims at establishing a large number of micro-enterprises
in the rural areas, building upon the potential of the rural poor. It is envisaged that every family
assisted under SGSY will be brought above the poverty line in a period of three years.

Scope
Launched on 1st April 1999, the program replaces the earlier self-employment and allied
program.
[Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP), Training of Rural Youth for Self
Employment (TRYSEM), Development of Woman and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA),
Supply of Integrated Tool-kit for Rural Artisans (SITRA), Ganga Kalyan Yojana (GKY) and
Million Well Scheme (MWS), which are no longer in operation. The program covers families
below poverty line in operation. The country. Within this target group, reserving 50 per cent of
benefits for SCs/ STs, 40 per cent for women and three per cent for physically handicapped
persons has provided special safeguards. Subject to availability of funds. It is proposed to
cover 30 per cent of the rural poor in each block in the next 5 years.]

Strategy
SGSY is a Credit-cum-subsidy program. It covers all aspects of self-employment, such as
organization of the poor into self-help groups, training, credit technology, infrastructure and
marketing. Efforts would be made to involve women members in each self-help group. SGSY
lays emphasis on activity clusters. Four / five activities will be identified for each block with the
approval of Panchayat Smitis. The Gram Sabha will authenticate the list of families below
poverty line identified in BPL census. Identification of individual families suitable for each key
activity will be made through a participatory process. Closer attention will be paid skill
development of the beneficiaries known as swarozgaris and their technology and marketing
needs.

Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)

Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)

Genesis
The CDP launched in 1952 could not bring expected change in improving the conditions
of rural masses or there was not much achievement in the areas of agricultural development.
The apparent failure of the CDP was the main reason for the evolution of the IRDP. The
main drawbacks of the CDP were
- Uneven distribution of the benefits of the programme
- Absence of clearly defined priority in the programmes.
- The inability of the CDP to recognise and solve the inherent conflicts in the inter and
intra target groups.
- Lack of mass participation.
- More bureaucratic

So, it was considered necessary to go in firstly for a programme directed mainly at
agriculture and secondly to attempt the process of development in selected areas. Thus, in 1960
Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) was formed and implemented. In this
programme, efforts to boost agricultural production were concentrated in areas with better
prospects of higher yields (package programme).
The success achieved in increasing agricultural production under IADP, led the Government to
extend the programme to other districts with slight modifications under the name of Intensive
Agricultural area Programme (IADP) in 1964.
The food situation became alarming, particularly due to successive famines during 1064-
67 and this happened despite intensive efforts in selected areas. In order to overcome this crisis,the GOI launched a new agricultural strategy known as High Yielding Varieties Programme
(HYVP) in 1966. The achievement was the single goal of increasing agricultural production.
This unusual shift in the rural development strategy in favour of increasing agricultural
production led to the accentuation of regional disparities on one hand and economic inequalities
among different sections of the population on the other. Various reports revealed that the gains
of intensive development efforts, including institutional credit flew more towards large and
resourceful farmers to the neglect of small farmers, landless labourers, tenants and artisans.
On realisation of the above, there was a shift in the rural development strategy. The main
purpose of such a change in the approach was to make deliberate efforts to flow development
benefits to the poorer sections and the backward areas. Accordingly, Small Farmers
Development Agency (SFDA); Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers (MFAL);
Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP); Hill Area Development Programme (HADP) etc.,
were implemented.
The beneficiary-oriented programmes as well as area development programmes, despite
some successes could not make much dent into the problem of poverty and unemployment.
Considering the magnitude and dimensions of rural poverty, the rural development strategy,
therefore, took a major turn in its emphasis, content, coverage and methodology. This resulted in
launching of the programme “Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) in 1978-79,
covering 2,300 development blocks and extended to all the 5011 blocks in 2^nd October, 1980.
For implementing the programme, DRDA was set up at district level. IRDP envisages the
integration of methodology and approach of both beneficiary oriented programmes as well as
area development efforts for the purpose of poverty alleviation as well as increasing productivity.
The goal of poverty alleviation was achieved by having two main instruments.
(i) a set of self employment schemes for the poor i.e., IRDP and its two sub-programmes of
TRYSEM and DWCRA.
(ii) Wage employment programmes like NREP (1980) and RLEGP (1983). These have now
been merged into Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY0).

While the programes under set (I) aim at giving the poor family an income generating
asset, the latter set (ii) provides direct income to the poor through wage employment.

Objectives of IRDP
The main objectives are creating assets, employment, increased income, removal of
poverty and minimising inequality. The guide lines given to achieve the objectives include:
(i) to provide gainful employment and increase the purchasing power of rural poor.
(ii) The job opportunities must be provided through the application of science and
technology in making optimum use of existing local resources.
(iii) The programme must be simple enough to operate and be economically viable
to ensure quick self-reliance of its beneficiaries.
For achieving its objective of rural poverty alleviation, IRDP aimed at the provision of
assets to the identified poor in the form of Government subsidy and bank credit on reasonable
rate of interest.

Operation
For managing the programme a corporate governmental agency name as District Rural
Development (DRDA) was set up at district level. TH DRDA is guided and directed and
supported by a governing council headed by the Project Officer of DRDA. The District
Collector, Heads of District Officers, legislators, Panchayat Union Chairmen and some other
non-officials from the member.
The existing development block was strengthened to enable it to bear the additional
responsibility of implementing DRDA directed and supported programmes. IRDP is a centrally
sponsored scheme implemented by DRDA of the states. The scheme is funded on 50:50 basis by
the centre and the states.
The integration involves several categories of:
(i) Spatial integration (integration between areas)
(ii) Sectoral integration (integration between agriculture, off-farm activities, industries, etc.)
(iii) Integration in economic and social development.
(iv) Integration of total area and target group aproach.
(v) Integration of human and other resources.
(vi) Integration of income generating schemes.
(vii) Integration of credit with technical services.
Thus IRDP involves integration both in its means and ends.

Short comings
Since 1985 the Government has promoted concurrent evaluation of the implementation
and impact of the programme. These evaluation had indicated that there has been some increase
in income but only a minority of them could cross the newly determined poverty line of 6400
rupees. Various evaluation indicated the followings:
 the resources provided were inadequate in majority of the cases;
 there were large number of over dues due to one reason or the other
 poor quality of assets provided to the beneficiaries in many cases;
 the follow up of the beneficiaries was inadequate;
 delay in provision of assets and preliminary high costs incurred by beneficiaries;
 lacking of training facilities to farmers;
 delay in releasing subsidy;
 bribes taken by various functionaries concerned;
 very inadequate supporting facilities or services;
 non-availability of loans for making capital; and
 lack of guidance about insurance cover.
Selection of beneficiaries the ‘very poor’ are overlooked, by and large.

Integrated Tribal Development Agency (ITDA)

Integrated Tribal Development Agency (ITDA)

A detailed and comprehensive review of the tribal peoples’ problem was taken up on the
eve of the Fifth Five Year Plan period. The main objective of ITDA is socio-economic
development of tribal communities through income generating schemes allied with Infrastructure
Development programmes and protection of the tribal communities against exploitation.

The ITDA project areas are generally contiguous areas of the size of a Tehsil or Block or
more in which the ST population is 50% or more of the total. Due to the demographic profile of
the tribal people in these regions, however, the ITDPs in Assam, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and
West Bengal may be smaller or not contiguous. Andhra Pradesh and Orissa have opted for an
Agency model under the Registration of Societies Act and the ITDPs there are known as ITD
Agencies (ITDAs).

So far, 194 ITDPs / ITDAs have been delineated in the country. In Jammu and Kashmir
though no ITDP has been delineated yet, the areas having ST Population in the State are treated
as covered under the TSP strategy. In eight states having scheduled areas the ITDPs / ITDAs are
generally co-terminus with TSP areas. The ITDPs / ITDAs are headed by Project Officers though
they may be designated Project Administrators or Project Directors.

National Watershed Development Programme

National Watershed Development Programme

The Department of Land Resources in the Ministry of Rural Development is
administering three area-based watershed programmes for development of wastelands/degraded
lands namely Drought Prone Areas Programmes (DPAP), Desert Development Programme
(DDP) and Integrated Wastelands Development Programme (IWDP) to check the diminishing
productivity of wasteland and loss of natural resources.

The DPAP was launched in 1973-74 to tackle the special problems faced by those areas
that are constantly afflicted by drought conditions. Presently, 972 blocks of 195 districts in 16
States are covered under the Programme. DDP was launched in 1977-78 to mitigate the adverse
effects of desertification. Presently, 235 blocks of 40 districts in 7 States are covered under the Programme. IWDP has been under implementation since 1989-90. The projects under the IWDP
are generally sanctioned in areas that are not covered under DDP or DPAP.

Since 1 April 1995, these three programmes are being implemented on the basis of
Common Guidelines for Watershed Development. Details of projects sanctioned and funds
released from 1995-96 to 2007-2008 are as under:

The projects under DPAP and DDP are sanctioned for 500 ha. each while the IWDP
projects cover an area of 5000-6000 ha. The cost norms for all the three schemes have been
revised to Rs. 6000 per ha. Under DPAP and DDP, it is shared between the Centre and the States
in ratio of 75:25. In case of IWDP, the cost sharing between the Centre and State Governments is
in the ratio of 11:1.

Funds are released in seven installments, six installments at the rate of 15 per cent and the
last installment at the rate of 10 per cent. The first installment is released along with the initial
sanction-order and subsequent installments on receipt of utilization for 50 per cent of the
available funds as well as the following documents:

 Quarterly Progress Reports
 Utilisation Certificates
 The Audited Statement of Accounts for the previous years and
 Evidence of satisfactory completion of institutional arrangements
 Projects are implemented by District Rural Development Agencies/Zilla Parishads
(DRDAs/ZPs) through Project Implementing Agencies (PIAs). PIAs could be a Line
Department (of the State Government), Panchayati Raj Institutions or a reputed NGO.

One PIA normally handles 10-12 watershed projects covering an area of about 5000-6000
hectares. The PIA is required to maintain a technical team of 4 experts called Watershed
Development Team (WDT) and individual projects (500 hectares) are planned and executed by
the local people living in the watershed area called the Watershed Association (WA) through an
elected body called Watershed Committee (WC).

The Department of Land Resources has brought out a new initiative called Hariyali with
an objective of empowering PRIs both financially and administratively in implementation of
Watershed Development Programmes. Under this initiative, all ongoing area development
programmes namely, Integrated Wastelands Development Programme (IWDP), Drought Prone
Areas Programme (DPAP) and Desert Development Programme (DDP) are to be implemented
through the PRIs. New projects under the aforesaid area development programmes are being
implemented in accordance with the guidelines for Hariyali from 1 April 2003. Projects
sanctioned prior to this date shall continue to be implemented as per the Watershed Development
Guidelines of 2001.

In the new arrangement, Gram Panchayats shall implement projects under overall
supervision and guidance of Project Implementation Agencies (PIAs). An intermediate
panchayat may be the PIA for all the projects sanctioned to a particular Block/Taluka. In case,
these Panchayats are not adequately empowered, then the Zilla Panchayat can either act as PIA
itself or may appoint a suitable Line Department like Agriculture, Forestry /Social Forestry, Soil
Conservation, etc., or an Agency of the State Government/ University/Institute as PIA. Failing
these options, the ZP/DRDA may consider appointing a reputed Non-Government Organization
(NGO) in the district with adequate experience and expertise in the implementation of watershed
projects or related area development works as the PIA after thoroughly examining their
credentials.
The Project Implementing Agency (PIA) will provide necessary technical guidance to the
Gram Panchayat for preparation of development plans for the watershed through Participatory
Rural Appraisal (PRA) exercise, undertake community organisation and training for the village
communities, supervise watershed development activities, inspect and authenticate project
accounts.

The National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP)

The National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) is a dynamic instrument of
introducing major changes in the Agricultural Research and Extension systems of the country,
besides developing their capabilities to meet future challenges. The project was initiated by
Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India with the financial assistance of World Bank and would be
implemented with the assistance of MANAGE in 28 districts covering 7 states, viz. Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa and Punjab over a period of
5 years (1998-2003).

 The World Bank assisted National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) aims at
improving research and extension services.

   The Research component of NATP is being implemented by the Indian council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) and the Extension component by the Department of Agriculture
and Co-operation. The different Project Implementing Agencies (PIAs) involved in
implementation of the ITD component of NATP are:

(i) Directorate of Extension (DOE)
(ii) National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE)
(iii) NATP cell at State Head Quarters
(iv) State Agricultural Management and Extension Training Institute (SAMETI)
(v) District Level Agricultural Technology Management Agencies (ATMAs)
 
The Extension component termed as "Innovations in Technology
Dissemination"(ITD) envisages an integrated extension delivery at district level and is being
pilot tested in seven participating states, viz. Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Himachal
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab.

   The purpose of this component is to test new approaches to technology transfer, new
organizational arrangements, and operational procedures. One of the goal is to decentralize
decision making to the district level through the creation of Agricultural Technology
Management Agency (ATMA) as a registered society. The second goal is to increase farmer input into programme planning and resource allocation especially at the block level and increase
accountability to stakeholders. The third goal is to increase programme coordination and
integration. Funds would be provided to 28 pilot districts in seven states to create Agricultural
Technology Management Agency which will bring together researchers, extensionists, farmers
and other stakeholders (including NGOs and the corporate sector) to make, on the basis of joint
diagnostic studies, district Extension Plans and recommendations for expanded adaptive research
to introduce innovations in technology dissemination matched to local needs and characteristics.


    Four districts in each of the seven participating states are identified for pilot testing as
detailed below.

Andhra Pradesh : Kurnool, Prakasam, Adilabad and Chittoor

Bihar : Muzaffarpur, Madhubani, Munger, Patna Rural

Jharkhand : Dumka, Jamtara,Palamau,Chaibara

Himachal Pradesh : Shimla,Hamirpur,Kangra,Bilaspur

Maharashtra : Ahmednagar, Amaravati, Aurangabad, and Ratnagiri

Orissa : Khurda, Koraput, Ganjam, Sambhalpur

Punjab : Gurdaspur, Jalandhar, Sangrur and Faridkot

 In each of the pilot districts, an Agricultural Technology Management Agency(ATMA) would be
established as a registered society for integrating research and extension activities.

Institutional Village Linkage Programme (IVLP)

Institutional Village Linkage Programme (IVLP)

IVLP is an innovative program developed by the ICAR to help scientists to have direct
interaction with the farming community so that appropriate technologies are developed for
farmers. Here research, extension and farmers establish firm links by carrying together the
assessment and refinement functions in the technology development and dissemination process.
This helps the research system to generate a cafeteria of technologies, which are more productive
in small production system, more profitable in commercial production system and gender
sensitive for removal of drudgery of farmwomen.

Objectives of IVLP as per ICAR guidelines are as follows
1. To introduce technological intervention with emphasis on stability and sustainability
along with productivity of small production systems.
2. To introduce and integrate the appropriate technologies to sustain technological
interventions and their integration to maintain productivity and profitability taking environmental issues into consideration in a comparatively well defined production
system.
3. To introduce and integrate the appropriate technologies to increase the agricultural
productivity with marketable surplus in commercial on and off-farm production systems.
4. To facilitate adoption of appropriate post-harvest technologies for conservation and
onfarm value addition to agricultural products, by-products and waste for grater
economic divident and national priorities.
5. To facilitate adoption of appropriate technologies for removal of drudgery, increase
efficiency and higher income of farm women.
6. To monitor socio-economic impact of the technological / technology modules based on
environmental at meso and mega levels.


Methodology of implementation of IVLP as per ICAR guidelines are given below:
1. Selection of participating Institutions
a. ICAR and ICAR Institutes
b. SAUs & their Regional Resarch Statins / Zonal Research Stations.
c. Krishi Vigyan Kendras
Based on availability of multi-disciplinary team of scientists, laboratory facilities and
transport etc.

2. Selection of village
One village or a cluster of villages to cover about 1000 farm families.
a. The selected village should not be far away from the research station
b. Should have asses through road
c. Should be a relatively poorly developed in agriculture

3. Agro-Eco-System analysis
Using Participatory Rural Appraisal Methods to gather information about
- the resource availability with the farmer's present production practices
- the extent of impact of the previous programs in the area

4. Constitution of multi-disciplinary team of scientists
Core team : Those scientists whose disciplines are essentially needed
Optional team : The other disciplines depending upon the needs of the area.
5. Selection of team leader
6. Provide training to the multi-disciplinary team
7. Plan for Technology Assessment and Refinement
- Intervention points based on problem – cause analysis
- Basket approach considering the problems
- Weightage to indigenous knowledge
8. Implementation of action plan
a. On-farm research
b. Demonstration
c. On-farm trials
9. Monitoring and Evaluation
a. Regular visit of team members
b. Technical staff posted for the village
c. IVLP card separately devised for the purpose.

High Yielding Variety Programme (HYVP-1966)

High Yielding Variety Programme (HYVP-1966)

HYVP is launched in 1966, which helped the country in attaining self-sufficiency in
food. The technological development did not remain confined to the introduction of high
yielding crop varieties alone. These were combined with the application of high analysis and
balanced fertilizer, irrigation, plant protection, improved implements etc, which made a 'green
revolution' possible in the country. The pervasive influence of high yielding technology spread
to other areas of farm production such as animal production, such as animal production, fishery,
sericulture, social forestry etc.

Punjab, Haryana and Western parts of UP were initially selected for the phased launching
of this strategy. The cultivation of HYV since 1966-67 had resulted in a substantial increase in foodgrains production. Wheat production was doubled. Rice production also had a substantial increase, though not as much as in the case of wheat. The target of coverage of 2.5 crore hectares of area under HYVs of cereals and millets under fourth five year plan was exceeded. The coverage was more than four crore hectares.

Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP-1964)

Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP-1964)

During the third five year plan 30 per cent increase in food grain production was
achieved through IADP. The intensive promotion of agriculture was very popular among policymakers and administrators. As a result of this a revised version of IADP with less intensive and
therefore less costly programme was formulated and launched in selected blocks of 150 districts.
It was named as IAAP. The selected blocks were to have the same physical conditions as in the
case of selection of districts for IADP. Under this programme 20 to 25 per cent of the cultivated
area of the country was brought ujnder the intensive agricultural development.

   Implementation of IAAP was accepted by Agricultural Production Board and came into
operation in March 1964. This programme also followed the package approaches of use of
improved methods. The uses of interrelated factors of physical, social and institutional were also
followed in a strategic combination mainly to produce an impact on agricultural production. Th
management of these programmes did not function as envisaged. There were many weaknesses
of deficiency in inter-agency and inter-personal coordination, inadequate staff motivation,
malpractices, non-formulation of local production plans on proper lines and delay in delivery of
inputs to farmers. However, the production and productivity were modest. The highly adverse
conditions (droughts) during 1966-68 served as a big blow. The foodgrains output was still
insufficient to meet the rising domestic demands. Imports were also continued to supplement the
local production. 

Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP-1960)

Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP-1960)

The major outacome of the above thinking was the formulation of a strategy of intensive
approach to agricultural production, specially the foodgrains. A new programme named as
IADP was formulated which was launched gradually from 1960. The third five year plan (1961-
1966) incorporated this programme into the planned development process.

 This programme was popularly known as a "package programme". This name was given
because of the collective and simultaneous application of all practices of improved seeds,
irrigation, fertilizer, plant protection, implements, credit, etc.

 This programme was started in July 1960 in seven selected districts in various states.
They were (I) West Godavari in AP, (ii) Shahabad in Bihar, (iii) Tanjore in Tamil Nadu, (iv)
Raipur in MP, (v) Ludhiana in Punjab; (vi)Pali in Rajasthan; and (vii) Aligarh in UP. The
selections of these districts were done on the basis of their high potentiality for increasing the
yield in shorter time. These selected districts had suured water supply for irrigation, well
developed cooperatives, good physical infrastructure and minimum hazards.

Objectives
(i) to achieve rapid increase in the level of agriculture production through a concentration of
financial, technical, extension and administrative resources;
(ii) to achieve a self-generating breakthrough in productivity and to raise the production
potential by stimulating lthe human and physical process of change; and
(iii) to demonstrate the most effective ways of increasing production and thus, to provide
lessons for extending such intensified agricultural production programes to other areas.

Short coming
1. Educational approach to reach farmers was lacking.
2. VLW were found below standard and were not able to impress farmers.

PANCHAYAT RAJ SYSTEM

The realization that peoples' participation is crucial for successful implementation of
programmes like CD and NES, was brought to sharp focus through the report of the team for the
study of Community Projects and National Extension Service by Balvantray G.Mehta (1957).
The Committee observed that one of the least successful aspects of CD and NES work is its
attempt to evoke popular initiative and recommended democratic decentralization.

Democratic Decentralisation
The word 'democracy' is derived from the Greek 'demos' means 'the people'; 'cracy'
means 'rule of'. It is the 'rule of people'. It is governance of the people, by the people, for the
people. The rule by majority is an important feature of this programme.

 Decentralisation means devolution of central authority among local units close to the
areas served. Where authority devolves by this process on people's institution, it is 'democratic
decentralisation'.

 The State of Madras tried this as a pilot project as early as 1957. Based on the success in
this State it was Rajasthan which became the pioneer to bring the whole state under democratic
decentralisation on Oct. 2, 1959.

Meaning - Panchayat Raj
The concept 'democratic decentralisation' was not easily understood by the people.
Therefore, as decided by the then Prime Minister the three-tier administration was introduced in
the name of "Panchayat Raj". Panchayat Raj means the system of Government. Horizontally it
is a network of village panchayats. Vertically, it is an organic growth of panchayat rising upto
national level.

     Panchayat Raj was easily accepted because it meant administration by mutual consultation,
consent and consensus. It fitted closely into the ancient cultural patterns in India.

Three tiers of Panchayat Raj

The Gram Panchayat: The first formal democratic institution under the directive principle in
the Indian constitution is the Gram Panchayat or Panchayat. It is the primary unit of local selfgovernment. Panchayat is a cabinet of the village elders, directly elected by the adult citizens of
the village.

  Gram Panchayats are constituted considering their income, population and area. The
income varies from mere Rs.500/- kper annum to more than Rs.2.00 lakhs. The population
varies from 500 to 25,000. The panchayat membership varies from 5 to 17. There is provision
for reservation of seats for women and SC and STs. The panchayat has a tenure of five years and
is directly elected. The meeting is to be convened atleast once in six months. It has income
through taxes to perform its functions. The main functions of Panchayats are:

(i) representative function, where the main role is to voice and represent the opinion;
(ii) regulatory and administrative functions, which consists of regulating the conduct of
indivuduals and institutions and also collection of taxes;
(iii) service or developmental function, such as promotion of education, health, agriculture,
etc.

The Panchayat Samithi or Panchayat Union: This is the second tier of the administration at
Block level. It consists of Panchayat Union Chairman, presidents of all panchayats in the area,
local MLAs, MLCs, MPs etc., with the right to vote, but not to hold office and nominated
persons. Reservation and cooperation are given for women, SCs and STs and persons with
experience in administration and public life.

   Block Development Officer is appointed by the Government. He functions as the leader
of the Block.

Functions of the Block
(1) It has to instill among people within its jurisdiction a spirit of self-help and initiative and
work for raising the standard of living;
(2) It has to support for the implementation of development programmes;
(3) It has the welfare and development activities in the fields of agriculture, animal husbandry,
health, sanitation, elementary education, cottage industries and social.
(4) It has to use the village housing project funds and loans.


District Development Council (Zila Parishad)
This is the third tier of Panchayat Raj functioning at district level. The members are all
Panchayat Union Chairman, District Collector, MLAs, MLCs, MPs of the district with right to
vote but not to hold office and women, SC, ST and persons interested in rural development are
also given representation. District Collector leads the work with the help of District
Development Officers.

Functions
It works as advisory body for blocks. It approves budget and plan of blocks. It allots
funds to the blocks. It approves budget and plan of blocks. It allots funds to the blocks.
Secondary education is the responsibility of this council. It should advise Government in all
matters relating to rural development in the district. It has to review the results achieved under
various items in all the blocks.

National Extension Services (NES-1953)

National Extension Services (NES-1953)

NES was implemented from 2.10.1953. This was implemented in the areas which were
not covered by CDP, so that entire country would get the benefit of development. When
compared to CDP, the NES was less intensive in character.
Since CDP and NES had the same basic ideas, they were integrated both at the centre and
state. With effect from April, 1958 there was no distinction between CD blocks and NES . All
NES blocks became CD blocks was achieved by October 1963.
NES covered almost all the villages in the country; For this national programme apart
from the existing system, a new administrative organisation was built. At central level Planning
Commission itself headed by PM acted for direction and coordination of development. It was assisted by an advisory board comprising of secretaries of several Central Ministries concerned. An administrator for CDP was appointed to work under the control of the Central Committee for the overall management of the programme. At state level, a state development committee under the chief minister was set-up with several ministers as its members. It was assisted by the state level advisory aboard with development department secretaries. A development commissioner was responsible for management of the programme.

Objectives of NES
(i) to change the outlook of village people;
(ii) to make the people participate effectively in development programmes;
(iii) to develop village leaders accepted by all; and
(iv) to increase the employment and production.


Defects of CD/NES
(i) Uneven distribution of benefits;
(ii) Absence of clear-cut priorities;
(iii) Lack of self reliance and mutual aids; and
(iv) Inadequate emphasis on development of cottage and small scale industries and
agriculture.

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

Community: is a group of people who live in a geographical area and have an interest in each

other for the purpose of making a living.

Development: connotes growth or maturation. It implies gradual and sequential phases of

change. It refers to the upward or increasing differentiation.

Community Development: It is a movement designed to promote better living for the

community with the active participation and/or the initiative at the community.

 It is a method by which people of villages are involved in helping to improve their own

economic and social conditions and thereby they become more effective groups in programmes

of their national development.

 It is a process of change by which people's efforts are united with those of group

authorities to improve their economic, social and cultural conditions of communities, into the life

of the nation and to enable them to contribute fully to national programmes. 

Genesis of Community Development Programme (CDP - 1952)

Based on the experiences within the country and abroad, the recommendations of the

Fiscal Commission (1949) and the Grow More Food Enquiry Committee (1952) the CDP was

launched on October 2, 1952, the birth-day of Mahatma Gandhi.

 

   At the initial stage in 1952 there were 55 community projects in 3 blocks. Each of the

community development projects covered an area of about 450-500 sq.miles with about 300

villages and a population of about 2 lakhs. Each project area has been divided into three

development blocks. A development block consisted of about 100 villages with about 150-170

sq.miles and a population of about 60-70 thousands. Each block was further divided into groups

of 5-10 villages each. Each such group formed the area of operation for a village level worker

(Gram Sevak) who was the basic level extension functionary in the community development

programme. 

The need for rapid extension of the programme to other parts of the country led to the National Extension Service (NES) along side the CDP on October 2, 1953 covering the entire country within a period of 10 years.

  In 1957, the Balvantroy Mehta team recommended the establishment of statutory elective of local leaders i.e., Panchayat Raj Institutions (Village Panchayat, Panchayat Union and District Development Council). This programme laid emphasis on all round development of the whole community with special emphasis on weaker and under privileged sections through the use of area development, self-help and integrated approaches. The CDP , however, could not bring expected change in improving the conditions of rural masses or there was not much development in the area of agricultural development.

Objectives of Community Development in India

The fundamental or basic objective of Community Development in India is the

development of people of "Destination Man".

Its broad objectives are (I) economic development, (ii) social justice and

(iii) democratic growth. The attempt is to secure as good a balance as possible among these

three objectives and to inter-relate them in a manner that they support one another. More

specifically, objectives of the Community Development Programme are:

i) To assist each village in having effective panchayats, cooperatives and schools;

ii) Through these village institutions, plan and carry out integrated multi-phased family,

village, Block and District.

a) Increasing agricultural production.

b) Improving existing village crafts and industries and organising new ones.

c) Providing minimum essential health services and improving health practices.

d) Providing required educational facilities for children and an adult education programme.

e) Providing recreational facilities and programmes.

f) Improving housing and family living conditions, and

g) Providing programmes for village women and youth.

Nilokheri Project (1948)

Nilokheri Project (1948)

It started during 1948 under the leadership of S.K.Dey. Its primary purpose was to develop a
new township to rehabilitate displaced persons from West Pakistan.
The project was built in a swampy barren land by refugees 'self help and governments' assistance,
located around the vocational training centre on the highway of Delhi and Ambala.

    Dey launched the new scheme called 'Mazdoor Manzil' for construction of township at
Nilokheri. This scheme gave the people (1) training on Agricultural implements preparation, (2)
cottage industries (3) carpentry etc. It was based on self-sufficiency for rural cum urban in all
essential requirements of life. Later this township was subsequently handed over to the
Government of Punjab. After the bifurcation of Punjab, Nilokheri went to Haryana state. 

Etawah Pilot Project (1948)

Etawah Pilot Project (1948) 

This project was started in 1948 by Mr. Albert Mayer of USA who came to India as a

warrior at a village called Mahewa in UP. A pilot project for development of Etawah district in

UP was formulated by him with the following objectives.

1. To know the degree of productive and social improvements, through self confidence and

cooperatives;

2. To find how quickly these results could be attained;

3. To know whether the results remain permanent even after the special pressure is withdrawn;

and

4. To assess how far the results were reproductive in other places.

In the project, development officers at various levels were posted. At village level, there

was a ‘multi-purpose' village level worker (VLW) with four or five villages under him. The

entire project was sponsered and funded by the Government of UP.

      This programme works were, by and large, similar to earlier projects; introduction of

improved variety seeds, chemical fertilizers, improved implements, plant protection measures,

horticultural development, soil conservation, improved cultural practices and the like. There

were projects in animal husbandry, cooperation, credit provision, marketing and supply,

improvements of roads, water supply, drainage etc. There were adult literacy programmes, tour

for farmers, village leader training camps, mass contact programes, etc.

      The project total expenditure was 1.54 million rupees. Of this total expenditure only 1.3

per cent was on grants-in-aid and subsidy. This was very little share. It also did not distribute

materials of any kind at free of cost to the people. The emphasis was

self-help. Advice alone was free.

      Initially the work was started in 64 villages. After one year the number of villages

covered by the project went up to 97. In 1951, another 125 villages were included. Finally this

project was merged with the National Extension Service (NES) block. 

 

The most convincing achievement of this project was in agriculture, particularly in wheat production due to adoption of improved production technologies. This project solved the problem of unemployment and under-employments. There was 53.3 per cent expenditure on capital works, which resulted in making available of good roads, and other structures. Success gained in Etawah could not be maintained after Mayer's departure in 1957. 

Gurgaon Project (1920) and Sarvodaya Movement

Sarvodaya Movement

It was a Gandhian concept and evoked great enthusiasm in Bombay since 1948-49. Themain features were simplicity, non-violence, sanctity of labour and reconstruction of humanvalues. It aimed in raising the standard of living, scientific development of agriculture,promotion of cottage industries, spread of literacy, medical and health facilities and thedevelopment of village panchayats. 

Gurgaon Project (1920)

Towards the end of 1920 F.L.Brayne, an Englishman, was posted as Deputy
Commissioner of Gurgaon district. After his assumption of the charge he studied the area by
touring and observed that the people were extremely poor, dirty and unhealthy, with no
conscious desire for any better because they had no idea that anything better was possible. After
seven years of study he developed a scheme called "The Gurgaon scheme" with the following
objectives:

- to jerk the villagers out of their old groove and convince them that improvement is possible;
- he must be laughed out of his economic and unhealthy customs and taught better ways of
living and farming.


He took the whole district as the field of operation and approached the area with every
form of propaganda and publicity.

Under his programme village guides were posted in each village, who acted as the
channel to pass on the information to villagers. The programme introduced improved seeds,
implements, methods of cultivation, etc. The activities introduced by Brayne were:
1. A school of rural economy to train the village guides in 1925.
2. A domestic school of economy to train groups of women under women and children welfare
work in 1926.
3. Health association, which ran five health centres in the district.
4. A women's Institute at Gurgaon to manage the ladies' garden in Gurgaon.

As the village guides were not technical men, only very little could be achieved. 

Marthandam Project (1921)

Marthandam Project (1921)

During 1921 under the auspices of YMCA, Marthandam project was started at
Travancore in Kerala by Dr. Spencer Hatch, an American agricultural expert specialized in
sociology. Fundamental aim of this programme was five fold development of physical, spiritual,
mental, economic and social, Dr.Hatch implemented an all round development in agriculture,
public health and education.
     In this centre prize bulls and goats, model bee-hives, demonstration plots for improving
grain and vegetable seeds, poultry with prize laying hens, a weaving shed, etc. were maintained.

      It also worked for improving literacy. On weekly market day it set up a protable tent
with teaching equipments, and exhibits with better poultry and livestock. The centre also
promoted the cooperative. The society developed the improved breeds of egg layers and good
bees. It assisted the people for marketing their produces through cooperative organisations. In
1939, the egg selling cooperative society become a self-governing body. Another society 'honey
club' was also formed. This society cured the honey brought by villagers and marketed
cooperatively. There were bull clubs, weavers' clubs, etc. These cooperative organisations are

still continued by YMCA and the rural development is taken up intensively.  

Sriniketan Project (1914)

Sriniketan Project (1914)

Shri Rabindra Nath Tagore wanted to develop a centre to extend his ideas on education in
a rural setting. During 1914 he established a rural reconstruction institute at Sriniketan involving
youth from a group of 8 villages. It maintained a demonstration farm, a dairy and poultry unit,
an outdoor clinic, a department of cottage industries and a village school. These agencies were
to treat the villages as their laboratory to identify problems and test their ideas. The villages
were expected to approach these agencies through the village workers to obtain solution of their
more pressing problems. These social workers lived in the villages and worked with the people.

      At Sriniketan centre, agriculture, dairy and poultry were the foremost activities. Scheme
of land development and tree plantation were given due importance. Experiment on paddy,
sugarcane and cotton were undertaken. Improved seeds, vegetable seedlings, fruit grafts and
saplings were distributed. New breeds of cattle were introduced. Local artisans were trained in
cottage industries. Other activities were village scout movement, village developmental council,
health, cooperatives, circulating library and village fairs.

Drawbacks
1. This institute could not get Government help and support.
2. It could not do research work and hence the programmes remained limited to those
8 villages only.

Economic Conference of Mysore
This programme was operated in Mysore state of the present Karnataka in the year 1914-

1918. The objectives were: 1) achieve all round progress, 2) bringing related economic development, and 3) give first priority to agriculture. District and taluk comittees with the respective revenue officers were the officials responsible with a chairman. The officers of the development departments and the selected non-officials were members. The committee surveyed the needs and possibilities, listed them, fixed the priorities and suggested the means for attaining them. But this programme was discontinued due to the immense work load to the officials and non-involvement of the people in the programme.

DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMES OF PRE-INDEPENDENCE ERA

DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMES OF PRE-INDEPENDENCE ERA 

Objectives and Importance

Over a period of about seventy years number of rural development experiments and

programmes were conducted in India. Long before the introduction of the Government managed

extension system at the national level in 1952, there had been sporadic attempts in developing

the rural life. Knowledge of the early extension efforts shall serve as a useful background in

understanding the development of systems of extension in India.

           The early extension efforts had two distinct patterns. First, there were attempts by some

benevolent persons and private agencies to improve rural life. Second, attempts were made at

government level to initiate some projects to solve the pressing problems in agriculture.

          When these experiments were conducted there existed certain conditions like, agriculture

was the primary occupation to a large percentage of population, extremely low purchasing

power, lack of application of science and technologies, lack of understanding about the natural

resources especially the flora and fauna of the region and their commercial usage, lack of socioeconomic organisations, etc. These realities are to be remembered before understanding the past

rural development works. When these experiment were conducted, colonial rule was existing.

Merits and Demerits

These programmes and experiments were conducted at different points of time, in different

regions, and under different politico-socio-economic conditions. They varied in area, population

coverage, financial and other resources. They were designed according to the policy makers perception of problems and needs of people. Therefore common evaluation is not possible and each experiment for programme is to be studied independently for its approach, performance, effectiveness against the stated objectives, etc.

The projects had one or the other shortcomings which may be summed up as follows:

1. Most of the efforts were based on individual initiative.

2. Government backing and financing were not forthcoming.

3. All attempts were isolated, uneven and discontinuous

4. Staff were mostly inexperienced and untrained.

5. Plans and programmes were ill-defined and unbalanced.

6. Need for proper methods and skills for approach was not realised.

7. No evaluation was carried out, hence the results were not known.

8. Association and coordination other development departments were very limited

9. Involvement of the people in planning and execution i.e. finding out the problems and their

solutions was very limited.

RURAL DEVELOPMENT

                   RURAL DEVELOPMENT

The Concept of Rural Development

Rural - Is an area, where the people are engaged in primary industry in the sense that they

produce things directly for the first time in cooperation with nature as stated by Srivastava

(1961).

A society or community can be classified as rural based on the criteria of lower

population density, less social differentiation, less social and spatial mobility, slow rate of social

change, etc. Agriculture would be the major occupation of rural area.

Development: It refers to growth, evolution, stage of inducement or progress.

This progress or growth is gradual and had sequential phases. Always there is increasing

differentiation. It also refers to the over all movement towards greater efficiency and complex

situations.

Rural Development (RD): is a process which aims at improving the well being and selfrealisation of people living outside the urbanized areas through collective process.

       According to Agarwal (1989) rural development is a strategy designed to improve the

economic and social life of rural poor.

Scope and Importance of Rural Development

 Rural development is a dynamic process which is mainly concerned with the rural areas. These

include agricultural growth, putting up of economic and social infrastructure, fair wages as also

housing and house sites for the landless, village planning, public health, education and functional

literacy, communication etc.

 Rural development is a national necessity and has considerable importance in India because

of the following reasons.

1. about three-fourth of India's population live in rural areas,

2. nearly half of the country's national income is derived from agriculture,

3. around seventy per cent of Indian population get employment through agriculture,

4. bulk of raw materials for industries come from agriculture and rural sector,

5. increase in industrial population can be justified only in rural populations' motivation and

increasing the purchasing power to buy industrial goods, and

6. growing disparity between the urban elite and the rural poor can lead to political instability.

Objectives: The major objectives of rural development are:

1) to achieve enhanced production and productivity in rural areas,

2) to bring about a greater socio-economic equity,

3) to bring about a spatial balance in social and economic development,

4) to bring about improvement in the ecological environment so that it may be conducive to growth

and happiness, and

5) to develop broad based community participation in the process of development.

Extension education

                        Extension education

Extension education is an applied social science consisting of relevant content derived from physical, biological and social sciences and in its own process synthesised into a body of knowledge, concepts, principles and procedures oriented to provide non-credit out of school education largely for adults. - Paul Leagans (1971).

Extension service refers to a program for agricultural development and rural welfare which (usually) employees the extension process as a means of program implementation.

Extension process is that of working with rural people through out of school education along those lines of their current interest and need which are closely related to gaining a livelihood improving the physical level of living of rural families and fostering rural community welfare. 

Scope of Extension Education

 Extension appears to have unlimited scope in situations where there is need for creating

awareness amongst the people and changing their behaviour by informing and educating them.

 Kelsey and Hearne (1967) identified nine areas of programme emphasis, which indicate the

scope of agricultural extension.

1. Efficiency in agricultural production.

2. Efficiency in marketing, distribution and utilisation.

3. Conservation, development and use of natural resources.

4. Management on the farm and in the home.

5. Family living.

6. Youth development.

7. Leadership development.

8. Community development and rural area development.

9. Public affairs

Extension is an integral part of agricultural and rural development programmes in India. The progress in production which has been achieved in agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, veterinary, fishery, social forestry, sericulture etc., may be thought of as proportional to the strength of extension service of the relevant government departments. 

General objectives (Function): The general objectives of the extension are1. To assist people to discover and analyse their problems, their felt and unfelt needs.

2. To develop leadership among people and help them in organising groups to solve their

problems.

3. To disseminate information based on research and /or practical experience, in such a manner

that the people would accept it and put it into actual practice.

4. To keep the research workers informed of the peoples' problems from time to time, so that

they may offer solutions based on necessary research.

5. To assist people in mobilising and utilizing the resources which they have and which they

need from outside.

 Eg.: To increase the a production and productivity of Paddy in India. 

Principles  of Extension

1. Extension is an organisation to plan, execute and evaluate programmes with the people, and

not for the people.

2. Extension is an organisation set up to teach people and motivate them to action, not to dictate

what people should do.

3. Extension should help people to help themselves.

4. Extension should be based on felt needs and enlightened desires of the people.

5. Extension should reach the people where they are.

6. Extension aims and objectives should not be rigid but it should be flexible

(Time, date etc.)

7. Extension should change the people and not the subject matter.

8. Extension should work in harmony with the culture of the people.

9. Democratic procedures must be adopted in the formulation and execution of the programmes

(group ideas only).

10. The designated programmes should give greatest benefit to greatest number of people in a

society.

Education

Education:
It is the production of desirable changes in knowledge (things known), attitude
(things felt) and skills (things done), either in all (or) one or more of human behaviour.

Types of Education

a) Informal Education – Is the life long process by which every person acquires knowledge,
skills, attitudes and insights from daily experiences and exposure to the environment at
home, at work, at play etc.

b) Non-formal Education – Is an organised, systematic educational activity carried on outside
the frame work of the formal system to provide selected types of learning to particular subgroups in the population, including adults and children. E.g.: adult education, vocational
education, functional literacy, continuing education, extension education etc.

c) Formal Education – Is highly institutionalized, chronologically graded and hierarchically
structured, education starting from primary school and reaching upto university education.

INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF STORED PRODUCE PESTS

INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF STORED PRODUCE PESTS

Integrated pest management is a simple strategy to improve the ecosystem by focusing mainly on the long-term elimination of the damages caused by pests with the help of combined techniques that include habitat manipulation, biological control, use of different resistant varieties and modifying cultural practices. The work of integrated pest management is to use pesticides only after monitoring them and by using them as per the guidelines provided with a motive of targeting and removing organisms only. The materials for pest control are applied and selected in such a manner that reduces the risks caused to the environment, human health and beneficial organisms. There is a multi-prong technique applied to solve the problems of the pests by non-harmful methods. The only emphasis is on the elimination and reduction of pest breeding that includes termite infestation and bed bugs.

The control methods of stored produce pests can be categorized into preventive and curative measures.

Preventive measures      

• Brush the cracks, crevices and corners to remove all debris in the godown.
• Clean and maintain the threshing floor/yard free from insect infection and away from the vicinity of villages.
• Clean the machines like harvester and thresher before their use.
• Made the trucks, trolleys or bullock carts free from infestation.
• Clean the godowns/ storage structures before storing the newly harvested crop to eliminate various bio stages of pest hiding.
• Provide a metal sheet upto a height of 25 cm at the bottom of the wood in doors to arrest the entry of rats.
• Fix up wire meshes to windows, ventilators, gutters, drains etc., to prevent entry of rats, birds and squirrels.
• Remove and destroy dirt, rubbish, sweepings and webbings etc from the stores.
• Close all the rat burrows found in godown with a mixture of broken glass pieces and mud plastered with mud/ cement.
• Plaster the cracks, crevices, holes found on walls, and floors with mud or cement and white wash the stores before storing of grains.
• Provide dunnage leaving gangway or alleyway of 0.75 to 1 m all around to maintain good storage condition.
• Store the food grains in rat and moisture proof storage structures.
• Disinfest the storage structures receptacles by spraying malathion 50 EC @ 3 lit 100 m before their use.

Curative measures

Ecological methods

• Manipulate the ecological factors like temperature, moisture content and oxygen through design and construction of storage structures/ godown and storage to create ecological conditions unfavourable for attack by insects.
• Temperature above 420 C and below 150 C retards reproduction and development of insect while prolonged temperature above 450 C and below 100 C may kill the insects.
• Dry the produce to have moisture content below 10% to prevent the buildup of pests.
• Kill the pests bio stages harbored in the storage bags, bins etc., by drying in the sun light.
• Store the grains at around 10 % moisture content to escape from the insects attack.
• Manipulate and reduce oxygen level by 1% to increase the CO2 level automatically, which will be lethal to all the stages of insects.

Physical methods

• Provide a super heating system by infrared heaters in the floor mills and food processing plants to obtain effective control of pests since mostly the stored produce insects die at 55 –600C in 10 – 20 minutes.
• Modify the storage atmosphere to generate low oxygen (2.4% and to develop high carbon di oxide (9.0 – 9.5) by adding CO2 to control the insects.
• Seed purpose: Mix 1 kg of activated kaolin (or) lindane 1.3 D (or) malathion 5 D for every 100 kg of seed and store/pack in gunny or polythene lined bags.
• Grain purpose: Mix 1 kg activated kaolin for every 100 kg of grain and store. To protect the pulse grains, mix activated kaolin at the above dosage or any one of the edible oils at 1 kg for every 100 kg of grain or mix 1 kg of neem seed kernel for every 100 kg of cereal / pulse and store.
• Do not mix synthetic insecticides with grains meant for consumption.

Cultural methods

• Split and store pulses to escape from the attack by pulse beetle since it prefers to attack whole pulses and not split ones.
• Store the food grains in air tight sealed structures to prevent the infestation by insects.

Mechanical methods

• Sieve and remove all broken grains to eliminate the condition which favour storage pests.
• Stitch all torn out bags before filling the grains.

Chemical methods

• Treat the walls, dunnage materials and ceilings of empty godown with malathion 50 EC 10 ml/L (or) DDVP 76 WSC 7 ml/L1 at 3 Ll spray solution/10 sq.m.
• Treat the alleyways and gangways with malathion 50 EC 10 ml/L or DDVP 76 WSC 7 ml/ L (1 L of spray fluid/270 m3).
• Spray malathion 50 EC 10 ml/ L with @ 3 L of spray fluid / 100 m2 over the bags.
• Do not spray the insecticides directly on food grains.
• Use knock down chemicals like lindane smoke generator or fumigant strips pyrethrum spray to kill the flying insects and insects on surfaces, cracks and crevices.
• Use seed protectants like pyrethrum dust, carbaryl dust to mix with grains meant for seed purposes only.
• Decide the need for shed fumigation based on the intensity of infestation.
• Check the black polythene sheets or rubberized aluminium covers for holes and get them ready for fumigation.
• Use EDB ampoules (available in different sizes 3 ml, 6 ml, 10 ml, 15 ml and 30 ml) at 3 ml/quintal for wheat and pulses and 5 ml/ quintal for rice and paddy (Do not recommend EDB for fumigation of flour oil seeds and moist grains)
• Use EDCT (available in tin containers of 500 ml, 1 liter and 5 litres) at 30 – 40 litres/ 100 cubic meter in large scale storage and 55 ml/quintal in small scale storage.

 FUMIGATION
Use fumigants like ethylene dibromide (EDB), ethylene dichloride carbon tetra chloride (EDCT), aluminium phosphide (ALP) to control stored produce pests effectively. Apply aluminum phosphide (available in 0.6 g and 3 gram tablets) @ 3 tablets (3 gram each) per tonne of food grains lot with help of an applicator. Choose the fumigant and work out the requirement based on the following guidelines.

• 3 tablets of aluminum phosphide 3 g each per tonne of grain.
• 21 tablets of aluminium phosphide 3 g each for 28 cubic meters
• Period of fumigation is 5 days

            Mix clay or red earth with water and make it into a paste form and keep it ready for plastering all round the fumigation cover or keep ready sand snakes. Place the required number of aluminium phosphide tablets in between the bags in different layer. Cover the bags immediately with fumigation cover. Plaster the edges of cover all round with wet red earth or clay plaster or weigh down with sand snakes to make leaf proof. Keep the bags for a period of 5-7 days under fumigation based on fumigant chosen. Remove the mud plaster after specified fumigation periods and lift cover in the corner to allow the residual gas to escape. Lift the cover after few hours to allow aeration.