Livestock

Agriculture is the science and art of raising animals, plants and fungi for food fiber, biofuel, medicinal and other products to sustain and enhance human life. 

Livestock: Domestic animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such as food, fiber and labor excluding farmed fish and poultry.

Livestock population of India

As per 19th livestock census the total livestock population including cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, equines, camels, mithun and yak is 512.05 million in numbers. Species wise the population is as

S. No	Species	Population (millions)
1.	Cattle	191
2.	Buffalo	108
3.	Sheep	65.06
4.	Goat	135.17
5.	Horses	1.04
6.	Camels	0.32
7.	Mithun	0.29
8.	Yak	0.07
9.	Poultry	729.2

Place of livestock in national economy

India has the world’s largest livestock population accounting for over 55 and 16% of buffalo and cattle populations respectively. It ranks 2nd in goat population, 3rd in sheep and camel and 7th in poultry population in the world.  During 2016-17 India was globally the largest producer of milk with an annual production of 165 million tones. The same year, the country recorded a production of 88 billion eggs, 43.59 million kg wool and 8.89 million tones of meat and rankedsecond in aquaculture production in the world with 114 lakh tones fish during 2016-17.

Value of output

​According to estimates of the Central Statistics Office, the value of output from livestock and fisheries sector together at current price was about 9,17,910crores during 2016-17. Besides this the sector plays an important role in ensuring livelihood, food and social security.

Food and non food items from livestock

Food: Milk meat and eggs

Fibre and skin: wool, hair pelts

Draft: bullocks, mules and donkeys provide traction power.

Dung and other animal wastes: server as very good farm yard manure.

Weed control: are used as biological control.

Storage: Considered as mobile banks because of their potentiality of easy liquidity in case of emergencies.

Companion animals: Dog and cat.

National livestock policy

​The national livestock policy, 2013, has been formulated to have a policy framework for improving productivity of the livestock sector in a sustainable manner, taking into account provisions of the national policy of farmers, 2007 and the recommendations of the stakeholders, including the state.

Major challenges

​The livestock in India faces the following major challenges which need to be addressed enabling the sector to grow according to the potential:- 

i) Shortage of feed and fodder.

ii) Low productivity.

iii) Livestock health.

iiii) Livestock and environment, climate change may have serious implication to the livestock sector.

v) Knowledge gap.

vi) Inadequate infrastructure for marketing, processing and value additions: livestock sector is handicapped due to inadequate marketing and processing infrastructure as a result of which the primary producers do not get remunerative prices most of the times.

Aims and objectives of national livestock policy

i) To increase livestock productivity in a sustainable manner, while protecting the environment, preserving animal biodiversity. 

ii) To support the existing low input production systems for improving productivity and income so as to improve socioeconomic status of a vast majority of our livestock producers, most of which are women.

iii) To support research and development initiatives on issues pertaining to livestock sector for improving production and productivity.

iiii) Genetic improvement of indigenous breeds of livestock and poultry.

v) To increase availability of feed and fodder resources to meet requirement of livestock. 

vi) To strengthen overall animal health cover through prevention, control and eradication of various diseases.

vii) To focus on production of quality livestock products as per the international standards for food safety.

viii) To encourage value addition of livestock products like milk and milk products, egg, wool and meat & meat products.

ix) To expand capacity of milk handled by organized dairy sector including cooperatives.

x) To create an enabling environment to attract investment for improving infrastructure support, livestock production, processing, value addition and marketing in the sector.

Schemes of the Ministry of Agriculture

The schemes launched by government of India to achieve above goals

i) Central cattle breeding farms.

ii) Central frozen semen production laboratory

iii) Central herd registration scheme: to register elite cows and buffaloes of important native breeds.

iiii) National project for cattle and buffalo breeding.

v) Feed and fodder development: seven regional and central stations have been established for production of fodder seeds.

vi) Livestock health: special programmes have been launched to control foot and mouth disease, brucellosis.

Dairy development

i) Major schemes launched to tap the potential of dairy industry are:-

ii) Dairy venture capital fund.

iii) Integrated dairy development in non-operation flood, hilly and backward areas.

iiii) Assistance to dairy cooperatives.

v) Promotion of private dairy processors.

vi) Strengthening infrastructure for clean milk production.

Programmes of the state Governments

​Based on the priorities set by the government of India, most of the state Governments had launched the following schemes:

i) Treatment of sick animals and preventive vaccination.

ii) Breeding services.

iii) Management of cattle farms, calf rearing, and fodderdemonstration farms, fodder banks, veterinary clinics.

iiii) Support to goshalas for breed conservation and production of elite animals.

Breed: A group of animals related by decent and similar in most characters like general appearance, features, size, configurations etc. 

Some common terms in relation to cattle 

Details	Expression	Details	Expression
Species	Bovine	Castrated male	Bullock
Group of animals	Herd	Castrated female	Spayed
Adult male	Bull	Female with offspring	Calf at foot
Adult female	Cow	Act of parturition	Calving
Newborn one	calf	Sound produced	Bellowing
Young male	Bull calf	Pregnancy	Gestation
Young female	Heifer calf

Indigenous breeds of cattle: 

Milch breeds: Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Gir, Tharpakr. 

Dual purpose: Hariana, Ongole, Deoni, Kankrej

Draught breeds: Amritmahal, Knagyam, Malvi, Siri, Khillari.

New breeds: Karan Swiss, Cross Between Sahiwal And Brow Swis.

Karan fries: cross between Tharpakar and Holstein Friesian.

Exotic breeds of cattle: Jersey, Holstein Friesian, Gurensey, Ayershire, Brown swiss.

Some common terms in relation to cattle

Details	Expression	Details	Expression
Species	Bovine	Castrated male	Bullock
Group of animals	Herd	Castrated female	Spayed
Adult male	Buffalo bull	Female with offspring	Calf at foot
Adult female	She Buffalo	Act of parturition	Calving
Newborn one	Buffalo calf	Sound produced	Bellowing
Young male	Buffalo bull calf	Pregnancy	Gestation
Young female	Buffalo heifer calf

Breeds of buffalo: Murrah, Niliravi, Kundi, Surti, Jaffarabdi, Mehsana,  Nagpuri, Bhadawari, Toda.

Bhadawari has the higest milk fat percentage among buffaloes

Some common terms in relation to goat

Details	Expression	Details	Expression
Species	caprine	Castrated male	Wether
Group of animals	Flock	Castrated female	Spayed
Adult male	Buck	Female with offspring	Suckling
Adult female	Doe	Act of parturition	Kidding
Newborn one	Kid	Sound produced	Bleat
Young male	Buckling	Pregnancy	Gestation
Young female	Goatling

Breeds of goat: at present there are 20 breeds of goat in India and these have been classified into four groups according to the agroclimatic conditions of the country.

i) Northwestern arid and semiarid: Jamnapari, Barbari, Beetal, Surti, Marwari, Jakhrana, Kutchi, Sirohi, Zalwadi

ii) Southern peninsular region: Osmanabadi, Malbari, Sangamneri.

iii) Eastern region: Black Bengal, Ganjam.

iiii) Northen temperate region: Changthangi, Gaddi, Chigu.

Exotic breeds of goat: Alpine, Anglo Nubian, Toggenburg, Saanen.

Some common terms in relation to sheep

Details	Expression	Details	Expression
Species	Ovine	Castrated male	Wether
Group of animals	Flock	Castrated female	Spayed
Adult male	Ram	Female with offspring	Suckling
Adult female	Ewe	Act of parturition	Lambing
Newborn one	Lamb	Sound produced	Bleat
Young male	Ram lamb	Pregnancy	Gestation
Young female	Ewe lamb

Breeds of sheep: there are 40 breeds of sheep in India whicj have evolved naturally through adaptation to different agroclimatic conditions of the country and are classified based on the place of origin:

i) Northern temperate region: Gaddi, Bhakarwal, Gurez, Poonchi, Karnah, Kashmir Merino

Kashmir merino is cross between different merino breeds and Gaddi, Bhakarwal and poonchi breeds

ii) North western arid and semi arid region: Chokla, Magra, Nali, Marwari, Sonadi, Jaisalmiri, Malpura.                 

iii) Southern Region: Deccani, Nellore, Bellary, Coimbatore, Hassan.

iiii) Eastern region: Chottanagpuri, Ganjam, Shahabadi.

Exotic breeds: Merino, Rambouillet, Southdown, Lincoln, Corriedale.                                         

                         Measures of fertility in livestock

Fertility is ability of male and female animals to produce viable germ cells, mate, conceive and deliver normal living young one. The life time productivity of a cow is age at puberty, age at calving and calving interval. 

1) Age at Puberty 

Puberty is a physical change mediated by hormones through which a young animal matures into an adult one capable of reproduction to enable fertilization. Age at puberty is an important determinant of reproductive efficiency. Many heifers can reach puberty and breed fairly satisfactorily at the age of one year. Age at puberty Bos indicuscattle in the tropics and subtropics range between 16 and 40 months.Bos indicus reach puberty later than crossbreeds (Bos Taurus x Bos indicus) or pure bred taurine cattle. This is due to genetic and environmental factors including nutrition, disease, temperature and season of birth.

2) Age at first calving

First calving marks the beginning of cow’s productive life. Age at first calving is closely related to generation interval and, therefore, influences response to selection. The average age at first calving is more in Bos indicus than crossbreeds in the tropics. Heritability of age at puberty, at first conception and at first calving is generally low, indicating that these traits are highly influenced by environmental factors.  

3) Calving interval 

Calving interval shorter than 410 days is very good, 411-460 are satisfactory and those greater than 461 days are unsatisfactory. Calving interval can be divided into three periods: gestation, postpartum anestrus and the service period.

Factors affecting fertility in livestock

1) Heredity/genetics

Genetics/heredity affects the fertility of farm animals in a variety of ways. Some animals may be genetically infertile. Genetic mutations can occur which can produce infertility. They can also give rise to abnormal development in embryos so much so that the young fail to develop properly and cause fetal death. A peculiar form of sterility called freemartin occurs in heifers born twin with a male calf.

2) Nutrition:

Generally the heavier the animal the more fertile, but over fat animals may have difficulty mating, conceiving, and birthing. Puberty is determined by body weight not by age of the animal. Poor nutrition may cause irregular cycles in females, reduced ovulation, weak offspring, and pregnancy toxemia or reduced twinning. In males poor nutrition may reduce sperm quantity and quality. Ewe given extra amount of nutrition is likely to shed more ova than normal. This results in a higher lambing percentage by increasing the number of twin births. This procedure is known as flushing. Feeding extra ration during advanced pregnancy leads to increased milk yield birth weight of lamb. This is called steaming up.

3) Age 

The effect of age is closely linked with nutrition, as puberty is determined by body weight not by the age of the animal. The physical size of animals may affect their ability to mate, carry a foetus or give normal birth to offspring. After puberty, fertility generally increases for some time then decreases when the animal gets too old. In contrast, goats have a greater chance of twin kids as they age. 

4) Climate 

i) Day length: Some species are polyoestrous (cattle), this means that they cycle throughout the year. Other species are seasonally polyoestrous meaning that they breed only during particular months of the year (horses, sheep, poultry and goats). The decreasing daylight hours stimulate ewes and does to cycle while the increasing daylight hours stimulate hens and mares to cycle. The period of the year at which animals breed has evolved by natural selection to ensure the young are born at a time giving them the best chance of survivial.

ii) Temperature: High body temperatures produced in rams by high summer temperatures is a cause of poor quality semen. This also affects semen formation in bulls. High temperatures can also affect mating with reduced sexual activity. Conception rate is also reduced. This affects the number of offspring born.

5) Diseases 

Disease as a factor that can affect the fertility of farm animals can be related to nutrition, climate, management and genetics. Disease may stop sperm or egg production, may cause abortion, may reduce the health of the foetus so reducing the chance of its survival. Infective conditions include brucellosis, trichomoniasis, leptospirosis and vibriosis. These diseases have dramatically reduced in recent years due to diligent eradication campaigns.

6) Management 

The farm manager has the ability to control or at least to maniupulate the factors that have been discussed above. Examples of how farmers control or manipulate these factors include:

i) A suitable vaccination program

ii) Strategic worm control program

iii) Selection of both male and female animals on the basis of their ability to produce offspring

iiii) If using natural matings, ensuring the correct proportion of male animals to female animals

v) Selecting animals suited to the environment

vi) Providing correct nutrition for the stage of production of the animals

vii) Selecting paddocks that minimise the detrimental effects of environmental factors for newly born animals

Factors affecting estrous behavior 

There are numerous factors which may affect the estrous cycle of the domestic animals:

• Pregnancy 

• Nutrition 

• Seasonal Influence and Light 

• Temperature 

• Character of Work 

• Systemic Diseases 

• Pathology of the Uterus or Cervix 

• Endocrine Disorders 

• Transportation 

• Social Factors 

Milk secretion

Milk is complex fluid composed of several phases that can be separated by centrifugation into cream layer, aqueous phase and a two phase pellet. The upper phase consists of milk cells and membranous debris, the lower of casein micelles. Casein can be precipitated by micelle destroying treatments such as enzyme rennin or low pH leaving an aqueous phase called whey. If the whey is made from skim milk it is a true solution that contains all milk sugars as well as major milk proteins lactoferrin and secretory immuno-globin A (sIgA), the monovalent ions sodium, potassium and chloride, citrate, calcium, free phosphate and most of the water soluble minor components of milk.

Lacto-genesis

Lacto-genesis (induction of milk synthesis) is a process of differentiation whereby the mammary gland alveolar cells acquire the ability to secrete milk; it is conveniently defined as a two-stage mechanism. The first stage of lacto-genesis consists of partial enzymatic and cytological differentiation of the alveolar cells and coincides with limited milk secretion before parturition. The second stage begins with the copious secretion of all milk components shortly before parturition and extends throughout several days postpartum in most species. The onset of copious milk secretion at parturition to meet the nutritional requirements of relatively well-developed neonates is a feature of lactation in all placental mammals.

For lacto-genesis to take place, stimulation of mammary gland by multiple hormones is required. At mid-pregnancy, mammary cells have little rough endoplasmatic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and casein protein. The presence of blood progesterone through late pregnancy significantly blocks lacto-genesis. In late pregnancy, the corpus luteum that secrets progesterone regresses, and mammary gland is then free to respond to the hormones of the lactogenic complex.

Galactopoiesis

Galactopoiesis (maintenance of lactation) requires alveolar cell number, synthetic activity per cell, and efficacy of the milk-ejection reflex. After parturition, there is a marked increase in milk yield in cows, which reaches a maximum in 2 to 8 weeks and then gradually declines. During this decline, the rate of mammary cell loss presumably exceeds the rate of cell division. This loss of secretory cells lowers milk yield as lactation advances. The pituitary gland and its hormones are important integrators of the endocrine control of milk secretion. Although there are species variations, growth hormone (STH), ACTH (or glucocorticoids), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), insulin, and parathyroid hormone are required for the maintenance of lactation. Thyroid hormones (T3, T4) influence milk synthesis as well as the intensity and duration of milk secretion. Administration of parathyroid hormone stimulates milk yield and increases the concentration of plasma calcium. ACTH plays a direct role in lactation by exerting its effect on mammary cell numbers and metabolic activity. Growth hormone does not produce its effect by direct stimulation of the mammary gland in ruminants. Rather, it appears to exert its galactopoietics effect by partitioning available nutrients away from body tissues and toward milk synthesis.

Udder Anatomy and Milk Secretion

The udder is composed of four distinct secretory glands termed quarters. The quarter consists of milk producing secretory tissue, which is referred to as alveoli, a duct system to transport milk away from the alveoli, two storage areas termed cisterns and one teat. An important component of teat is the streak canal, a thick muscular tissue that is lined with antibacterial substances and closes the teat when milk is not being extracted. Each quarter is independent and is separated from the others by thick ligaments. Most of the udder is composed of alveoli and milk is stored in the following proportions: 60% in alveoli, 20% in ducts and 20% in the cisterns. The cells that line the alveoli actually produce the milk, as the alveoli are filled with milk, pressure on the epithelial cells increases and milk production slows. It is estimated that each milliliter of milk requires between 500-1000ml of blood to circulate through the udder and 8% of the total blood volume of the dairy cow is present in the udder. Alveoli are surrounded by muscle cells called myo-epithelial cells, these muscle cells around the alveoli contract to move the milk into the ducts and cisterns. This process is termed milk letdown. The process of milk letdown is initiated by the environmental and physical stimuli that trigger a series of hormonal events. Positive stimulation signals the pituitary gland to produce oxytocin. This hormone causes the myo-epithelial cells around the alveoli to contract and move the milk into the duct and cistern system where it can be extracted through the milking process. 

Milk composition

Normal milk from producing Holstein Friesian dairy cows is composed of water (87%), fat (3.8%), protein (3.4%), sugars (i.e. lactose 4.5%) and other solids such as minerals (1.3%). Milk also contains a number of minor components including sloughed epithelial cells and white cells. High quality milk should be white in appearance, have no objectionable odours and be free of abnormal substances such as pesticides, added water or antibiotics & antiseptic residues. Milk quality is defined by the somatic cell count (SCC) and the bacterial count (Standard plate count or SPC) in pre-pasteurized bulk tank milk. Somatic cells are composed of white blood cells (WBC) and occasional sloughed epithelial cells. Most cells found in normal bovine milk are type of WBCs (macrophages) that function as early warning signals when bacteria invade the udder. 

Factors Affecting milk yield

Under normal situations, milk production increases during the first six weeks of lactation and then gradually decreases. The actual amount of milk produced during the lactation period is affected by several factors:

➢ Breed

➢ Parity

➢ Season of calving

➢ Geographic region

➢ Management factors (nutrition, frequency of milking)

Breed 

​Holstein cow has the highest volume of milk production and thehighest total production of all major milk components (i.e. fat, protein and lactose).

i) Dry period

Dairy cows are usually dried-off for two months prior to the next calving. This rest period is necessary to maximize milk production in subsequent lactation. Milk yield is usually reduced when the dry period is less than 40-60 days (25-40% less milk). Dry period longer than 60 days in length does not result in a significant increase in milk production. Long dry periods decrease the average annual production of the cow by extending the calving interval beyond the normal 13-14 month interval and causing a decrease in the lifetime production of the dairy cow.

ii) Age and body weight at calving

The amount of milk produced by the cow increases with advancing lactations (age). This is due in part to an increase in body weight, which results in a larger digestive system and a larger mammary gland for the secretion of milk. Another reason for increased milkproduction with age is due to the effects of recurring pregnancies and lactations. Data on milk production with cows suggest that 20% of the increase in milk production is due to increased body weight and 80% to the effects of recurring pregnancy and lactations. Recurring pregnancies and lactation can result in increases of 30% in milk production from the first to the fifth lactation.

Lactation number

Milk production increases with lactation number and is maximized in the fourth or the fifth lactation. This is a result of the increasing development and size of the udder and the increasing body size over that of the first lactation animal. The expected mature yield (mature equivalent) of a primiparous cow calving at two years of age can be estimated by multiplying yield of first lactation by 1.3.

i) Pregnancy

Pregnancy has an inhibitory effect on milk yield. Most of the reduction in milk yield occurs after the fifth month of pregnancy. By the 8th month of pregnancy, milk yield may be 20% less for that month compared with non-pregnant cow. The inhibitory effect of pregnancy is not likely due to fetal requirement, which does not increase considerably until the last two months of pregnancy. It is believed that the increase in estrogen and progesterone level as pregnancy progresses, inhibits milk secretion. Some studies with mice indicated that progesterone inhibits the activity of a-lactalbumin.Season of calving

The effect of season of calving on milk yield is confounded by breed, the stage of lactation, and climatic condition. Cows calving in late fall to spring produce more milk (up to 8% more) than cows calving in the summer. This is likely due to an interaction between day light and ambient temperature. Holsteins and the other larger breeds are more tolerant to lower temperatures, whereas the smaller breeds particularly the Jersey are much more tolerant to high temperatures.

Disease

The main disease that affect milk yield of dairy cows is mastitis. It impairs the ability of secretory tissue synthesize milk components and destroys the secretory tissues and consequently lowering milk yield. A decrease in production persists after the disappearance of the clinical signs of mastitis due to destruction in the secretory tissues.

Management Factors

i) Feed and water supply

Any restriction in feed or water supply will result in a drop in milk production. The most dramatic effect is brought about by shortage of water as the cow has no means of storing water. Withholding access to water, or insufficient supply of water for few hours will result in a rapid drop in milk yield.

ii) Growth hormones (BST)

There is a positive correlation between milk production of cows and the level of growth hormone in their blood. Growth hormone causes redistribution of nutrient within the cow’s body to favor nutrient utilization towards milk production. However, growthhormone is not directly involved in milk secretion process.

iii) Milking intervals

Cows are usually milked at equal intervals (12-h interval for 2 x milking). Cows milked at unequal intervals produce less milk than those milked at equal intervals. The reduction in milk yield is more in high producing cows than in low producing ones. Incomplete milking for several consecutive days can permanently reduce milk yield for the entire lactation.

Factors affecting milk composition 

In cattle, fat is the most variable component while minerals and lactose are the least variable. Milk protein to milk fat ratio ranges from 0.78 to 0.85 depending on breed type. Factors contributing to variations in milk composition include species, genetic variationswithin species, differences between individuals within a strain and differences in conditions affecting individuals.

Genetic Differences

Heritability is defined as the ratio of genetic variance to total phenotypic ratio. The concentrations (%) of the three major milk constituents are genetically controlled to a considerable extent. Heritiabilities of fat, protein, and lactose contents average 0.58, 0.49,and 0.5, respectively, while that of milk yield average 0.27. Some milk constituents are strongly correlated.

Breed Differences

Milk from Holstein cows has a lower milk fat % than milk from Jersey or Guernsey. Fat droplets also differ among breeds. Holstein has the smallest fat droplet while Guernsey has the largest. Milk of Jersey cows also has higher total solids than milk from other dairy cattle breeds.

Stage of Lactation

A Colostrum

Colostrum, the first mammary secretion after parturition differs greatly from normal milk. Cow's colostrum contains more minerals, protein and less lactose than milk. Fat % is usually higher in colostrums than in milk. Calcium, Mg, P, and Cl are high incolostrums, whereas K is low. Iron is 10-17 times higher in colostrums than in milk. The high levels of Fe are needed for the rapid increase in hemoglobin in the red blood cells of the newborn calf.

B Normal Milk

Changes in composition occur during the first few days continue but at reduced rate for about 5 weeks of lactation. Fat and protein % then rises gradually and may increase more sharply near the end of lactation. Lactose decreases while mineral concentration increases slightly during that period.

Change in Milk Composition during Milking

Milk fat % increases continuously during the milking process. First drawn milk may contain only 1-2% fat, whereas, at the end of milking, fat % may be 5-10%. This is because of the tendency of the fat globules to cluster and be trapped in the alveoli. 

Seasonal Variations

Seasonal variations in milk composition are commonly observed with dairy cattle in temperate regions. In general, milk fat and solid-not-fat percentages are highest in winter and lowest in summer.

Diseases

Infection of the udder (mastitis) greatly influences milk composition. Concentrations of fat, solids-not-fat, lactose, casein, b-lactogolbulin and a-lactalbumin are lowered and concentrations of blood of blood serum albumin, Igs, sodium, and chloride are increased. In severe mastitis, the casein content may be below the normal limit of 78% of total protein and the chloride content may rise above the normal maximum level of 0.12%. Mastitis is also responsible for differences observed in milk composition from different quarters of the udder.

Effects of Nutrition on Milk Composition

Of all milk components, milk fat is the most influenced by dietary manipulations. Most of changes in milk composition due to dietary manipulation are related to changes in ruminal acetate:propionate ratio. Several nutritional factors can influence milkcomposition. These include plane of nutrition, forage: concentrate ratio, forage quality (e.g. particle size), level and type of dietary fat.

Methods of milking

​Hand milking and machine milking are the

Hand milking 

Cows are milked from left side. After let down of milk, the milkerstarts milking teats either cross wise or fore quarters together and then hind quarters together of teats appearing most distended are milked. First few streams of fore milk from each teat be let on to strip cup. This removes any dirt from the teat canal and gives the operator a chance to detect mastitis.

Milking is done either by stripping or by full hand method stripping is done firmly holding the teat between the thumb and fore finger and drawing it down the length of the length of teat and at the same time pressing it to cause the milk to flow down in a stream. Grasping the teat with all the five fingers and pressing it against the palm does fisting or full hand milking. The teat is compressed and relaxed alternatively in quick succession, thus the method removes milk much quicker than stripping as there is no loss of time in changing the position of the hand. Further full hand method is superior to striping as it stimulates the natural suckling process by calf and more ever the method exerts an equal pressure on the large teats of cows and buffaloes.

Many milkers during milking tend to bend their thumb against the teat. The method is known as knuckling which should always be avoided to prevent injuries of the teat tissues. Thus milking should always be done with full hand unless the teats are too small or towards the completion of milking. The first few strips of milk from each quarter should not be mixed with the rest of the milk as the former contains highest number of bacteria. 

Machine milking 

Modern milking machines are capable of milking cows quickly and efficiently, without injuring the udder, if they are properly installed, maintained in excellent operating conditions and used properly. The milking machine performs two basic functions. It opens the streak canal through the use of partial vacuum, allowing the milk to flow out of the teat cistern through a line to a receiving container. It messages the teat, which prevents congestion of blood and lymph in the teat.

The advantages of machine milking are manifold. It is easy to operate, saves time as it milks 1.5-2 liters of milk per minute and isalso very hygienic. The machine is also easily adaptable and gives a suckling feeling to the cow and avoids pain in the udder as well as leakage of milk.

Selection and breeding of livestock for higher milk and meat production

Breeding objectives

A breeding objective describes characteristics that affect profit the most, as well as how important each trait is to profit. A breeding objective should be specific, measureable and attainable.

Selection 

Selection describes the process of choosing animals that meet the requirements of the breeding objective and will, in a breeding enterprise, pass particular traits onto their progeny. Selection should consider both subjectively measured traits (visual assessment) and objectively measured traits (genetic assessment).

i) Subjective, visual assessment

Visual assessment is an assessment of an animal based on what can be physically seen. While the requirements will vary depending on the enterprise's breeding objectives, traits to look for when visually assessing livestock include i) The conformation or shape of the animal eg muscling and ii) Structure of the animal e.g., whether the mouth is overshot or undershot.

ii) Objective, genetic assessment

Objective assessment uses actual measurements to assess the relative worth of an animal to an enterprise. One form of objective assessment is genetic evaluation which provides an insight into the genetic makeup of animals. This is particularly useful when sires are being acquired to improve a herd or flock according to the enterprises breeding objectives.

A number of technologies are required in taking the various steps needed to identify the genetically most superior animals to keep as parents or to bring into a herd. A significant challenge for most developing countries is the difficulty of measuring traits of economic importance in a repeatable and reliable manner for inclusion in a genetic evaluation. Limitations include: absence of the necessary equipment, absence of or variability in supply of electricity, cost of data collection, difficulty in transferring data from the point of collection to the point of analysis, disinterest by the animalowner/handler in taking the measurements and untrained people taking the measurements. Traits to be considered for selection:

Size and growth of 

Milk yield

Milk composition

Milk hygiene

Meat quality 

Reproduction 

Animal health

Feed efficiency

Molecular technologies : In many cases, genetic markers that are linked to the gene of interest are discovered before the gene itself isdiscovered; the unknown gene may be referred to as a Quantitative Trait Locus (QTL), and the use of genetic markers to enable selection of the QTL is referred to as Marker Assisted Selection (MAS).

Composition and classification of feed stuffs

Livestock feeds are generally classified according to the amount of specific nutrient they furnish in the ration. They are classified into two general categories- roughages and concentrates. Roughages are bulky feeds containing relatively large amount of less digestible material i.e. cruse fiber more than 18% and less than 60% of total digestible nutrients (TDN). Concentrates are feeds which contain less than 18% crude fiber and more than 60% TDN

Roughages are subdivided into two major groups-succulent and dry, based upon moisture content. Succulent usually contain moisture from 60-90%, whereas dry roughages contain only 10-15% moisture. Succulent feeds are further classified as pasture, cultivated fodder crops, tree leaves and root crops. Dry roughages have been classified as hay and straw.

Important forage crops

1. Cultivated fodder (legumes): Berseem, Leucerene, Senji, Metha, Shaftal, Cowpea, Gaur, Rice bran.

2. Cultivated fodder (cereals): Oats, Sorghum, Bajra, Maize, Teosinte, Barley

3. Cultivated fodder other than legumes and cereals:Brassia

4. Cultivated fodder (perennial grasses): Napier-bajra hybrid, Guinea grass

5. Cultivated fodder (annual grass): Deenannth grass

6. Perennial range grasses: Setaria, Anjana grass, Dhaman grass, Marvel grass

On the basis of crude protein (CP), concentrates are classified into energy rich when CP content is less than 18% or protein rich when CP value exceeds 18%.

Energy rich concentrates: grains and seeds, mill by products, molasses and roots

Protein rich concentrates: oil seed meal such as groundnut meal, blood meal, feather meal, fish meal.

Crude protein: true protein plus non protein nitrogenous compounds.

Crude fiber: cellulose, Hemicelluloses, Lignin, Pectins, Mucilage.

Hay: green fodder preserved by drying having moisture content of 15-20%.

Haylage: preserved forage having characteristics between that of hay and silage. It is made from grass and/or legume to a moisture level of about 45-55%.

Nutrients of feeding stuff

A nutrient is a substance that promotes growth, maintenance, function and reproduction of a cell or organism. The principal nutrients of all feed stuffs are water, organic and inorganic matters. The organic in turn is composed of crude protein, crude fiber, nitrogen free extract and ether extract.

Ration and its characteristics

A ration is the feed allowed for a given animal during 24 hours. A ration which provides the essential nutrients to the animal in such a proportion and amount that are required for the proper nourishment of the particular animal for 24 hours is called balanced ration.

Maintenance ration:  a minimum amount of feed required to maintain essential body processes at their optimum rate without gain or loss of body weight or change in body conformation.

Production ration: the additional allowance of ration for milk production over and above maintenance ration is called production ration.

Gestation ration: in case of pregnancy further allowance from fifth month of gestation onwards.

Characteristics of ration

1. Ration should be properly balanced.

2. Feed should be palatable.

3. Ration should contain variety of feed. 

4. Feed composing the ration should be good and sound.

5. Ration should contain enough of mineral matter.

6. Ration should be fairly laxative.

7. Ration should be fairly bulky.

8. It should contain much of green.

9. Feed must be properly prepared.

10. Economic in labour and cost.

Computation of ration

In the computation of ration for cattle and buffaloes, the prime consideration is to acertain and meet up the requirement in terms of i) dry matter ii) digestible crude protein (DCP) and iii) energy i.e. TDN for 24 hours.

Requirement of dry matter

Requirement of dry matter depends upon the weight of animal and nature of production. Cattle generally eat 2-2.5 kg dry matter for every 100kg live weight. Buffaloes and cross bred animals are slightly heavy eaters and their dry matter consumption varies from 2.5-3 kg daily per 100 kg live weight. Since bulk is essential, the dry matter allowance should be divided as:

	2/3rd as roughage	2/3rd as dry roughage or 3/4th if sufficient legume is available
Total dry matter (DM)		1/3rd green roughage (1/4th if legume is available)
	1/3rd as concentrate

Requirement of digestible crude protein and energy (DCP and TDN)

For calculating total requirements of DCP and TDN one has to consider the physiological needs or the purpose for which animal is to be fed i.e. wheather the animal is to maintain itself or carry out the advanced pregency or is under production (Producing Milk)

Feeding standard for cattle

Modified morrison’s standard

For calf
Body weight (kg)	DCP (Kg)	TDN (Kg)
45	0.17	0.9
70	0.22	1.3
Requirement for bull inservice
500	0.43	4.5
600	0.48	5.1
Daily maintenance requirement of dairy cattle
250	0.168	2.02
300	0.197	2.36
350	0.277	2.70
Requirement for production of 1Kg of milk
Fat %	DCP (Kg)	TDN (Kg)
3.5	0.042	0.29
4.0	0.045	0.32
4.5	0.048	0.34

Animal Health

Signs of ill health

1. Animal standing with head down or showing a tendency to separate from herd

2. Healthy animals eat greedily. Loss of appetite and cessation of rumination are early signs of several diseases.

3. Skin of healthy animals is soft and pliable. A coarse, dry skin is a sign of ill health

4. Raised hair coat, falling or brittle and lusterless hair is sign of ill health

5. Dryness of muzzle is sign of ill health

6. Elevated body temperature , variation in pulse and respiration

7. Eyes are sunken and get fixed

8. Change in consistency of dung to watery or very hard

9. Change in colour and volume of urine

10. Change in quality and quantity of milk yield

Portals of entry of pathogens

1. Alimentary canal

2. Respiratory tract 

3. Skin and conjunctiva 

4. Urogential tract , umbilicus and mammary gland

Clasification of animal diseases

Infection means to put in and is an interaction between two organisims – host and parasite in particular infection is used for microparasites and infestation is used for macro-parasites. This interaction between host and parasite leads to outward manifestation of diseases called symptoms. Disease can be classified as

Infectious disease: Foot and mouth disease, Rabbies,Pox diseases, Mastitis

Contagious diseases: Foot and mouth diseases , Brucellosis,Paratuberculosis.

Parastics diseases: Haemonchosis,Faciolasis , Coccidiosis, Trypanosomiasis

Viral diseases: Foot and mouth disease, Rabies, Pox diseases

Bacterial diseases: Salmonellosis, Colibacillosis, Foot rot, Black quarter.

Fungal diseases: Aspergillosis, Candidosis.

Prion diseases: Mad cow disease and Scrapie. 

Prevention and control of animal diseases

The first step in controlling a disease is its diagnosis. Once cause of disease is identified control measures should be based on knowledge of nature of causal agent. Following steps should be taken to contain for prevention and control of diseases

• Segregate apparently ill animals.

• Stop all animals, vehicles and persons coming into the farm.

• Call in veterinarian for advice.

• Gear up for sanitation and hygiene.

• Quarantine of newly purchased animal.

• Routine vaccination of livestock.

• Farm bio-security measures.

• Avoid undue stress to animals.

• Proper disposal of waste and dead animals.

Isolation

Isolation means segregation of animals which are known to be or suspected to be affected with disease from apparently healthy animals.

Quarantine

It is the segregation of apparently healthy animals which have been brought into the herd for the first time. The idea is to give sufficient time to any infection the newly purchased animal may have, to become evident.

Poultry production

Poultry includes all domestic birds (chicken, ducks, geese, turkeys etc) that are reared for their meat and eggs. The most important bird of this family however is the domestic fowl or chicken (Gallus gallus). 

Common breeds of chicken

There are hundreds of breeds and varieties of chicken listed in American Standard of Perfection and British Poultry standards. Out of these, there are only a few which are commercially important. The most desirable method of classifying chickens is based on their place of origin, commonly referred as class of chicken. There are four important classes of chicken, namely American class, English class, Mediterranean class and Asiatic class.

American Class 

American Class contains thirteen breeds, all of which originated in Canada or the United States. The birds of this class are all heavy breeds, and most lay brown eggs. They are cold-hardy for the most part, with the Buckeye and Chantecler reputed as being among the best breeds for considerably cold climates. Some of the commercially important breeds are, Plymouth Rock, Rhode Island Red, New- Hampshire.

English class

This class is made up of breeds that originated in the United Kingdom and Australia. Pink skin is a characteristic sported by the breeds of this class, and all but the Redcap are heavier birds that lay brown eggs e.g. Australorp, Cornish, Dorking, Orpington, Redcap, Sussex.

Mediterranean Class 

All members of this class possess white earlobes and tend to be productive layers of white eggs. In general they are flighty, and exceptional free-range birds; with both evasion and foraging skills.Origin of all the breeds of this class center around the Mediterraneanregion, namely Italy and Spain e.g. Ancona, Andalusian, Catalana, Leghorn, Minorca, Sicilian Buttercup, Spanish.

Asiatic class

There are three breeds in this class all have their origins in China; they are large, feather legged, and lay brown eggs e.g. Brahma CochinLangshan. 

Local breeds: There are several local breeds found all over the India like Kashmir faverolla, Punjab brown, karaknath etc. 

Hybrid chicken breeds: kuroiler and vanaraja are very popular in terms of meat and egg production. They are voracious eaters and can attain 3-4 kg body weight and act as potential bio-converters of kitchen waste. However due to lack of broodiness they are not self sustainable and have to be purchased every time from hatchery.

Breeds of duck

Most breeds of domesticated duck descended from Mallard and wild ducks distributed from Eastern Asia to North America. Ducks were first domesticated in Asia. Breeds of duck may be classified according to the purpose for which they are they are raised- like meat, egg and ornamental type.

Pekin: white pekin is most popular table duck. It originated from china. Drake weighs 4 kg and duck weighs a little over 3.5kg at maturity.

Aylesbury: it is finest breed of duck for table but is not as hardy as the pekin. Drakes weigh over 4.5 kg and duck 3.5 to 5 kg at maturity

Indian runner: there are three standard varieties of runner duck-the Fawn and White, the White and the Penciled. All varieties have the same shape but differ in plumage color.

Khaki Campbell: it was developed in England from crossbred foundation of the large meat breed rouen and white Indian runner. As its name indicated it has Khaki plumage.

Varieties of tyrkey: domestic turkies belong to one breed with a number of varieties. All these varieties have the same general shape, but differ mainly with respect to size, fleshing properties and plumage color. These include Broad Breasted Bronze and Broad Breasted Large.

Incubating and Hatching Eggs

Eggs of chickens require a standard measure of care in storage and incubation to ensure a successful hatch. Environmental conditions, handling, sanitation and record keeping can impact the success of incubating and hatching eggs. Hatching is a process by which, in a span of 21 days, a fertilized egg is changed into a downy chick capable of walking, eating and experiencing its needs by its voice and actions. 

Selection and care of hatching eggs

i) Egg size: Neither small nor very big eggs should be selected. It is always desirable to select eggs approximately 58 grams each.

ii) Shell colour: All eggs used for incubation should ne free from tints.

iii) Shell texture: Poor shell texture is associated with low hatchability.

iiii) Cracks: Shall be free from cracks.

v) Tremulous air cells: such defects resulting due damage to air cell during shipping result in poor hatchability.

vi) Soiled eggs: Eggs should not be washed with water before setting as washing with water opens up the pores and this interferes with hatching results. If dirt is not excessive it should be removed by a sand paper. Highly soiled eggs should not be set. 

vii) Age of egg: in hot weather eggs should not be kept for more than 3 days, but in winter they may be kept for 7-10 days.

Methods of hatching

Natural hatching: Natural hatching or hatching of eggs by hen is a primitive but most effective method to get a high percentage of success. It is particularly claimed that the hen is more to be trusted and consequently some breeders trust special sittings of egg which are to produce future stock. Ordinary desi hen is ideal for hatching chickens as she is a close sitter and owing to her light weight, there is little possibility of eggs being broken. The sitting hen should receive clean water twice daily and adequate amount of whole grains and lime stone grit. Sloppy foods of all description should avoid as they tend to produce loose droppings and consequent soiling of eggs. 

Artificial incubation: improvement in the design and construction of incubators have name artificial incubation so reliable that machines have largely, and on most farms completely, replaced broody hens. Incubators can be roughly classified as a) hot water radiation from pipes in the egg chamber b) hot air infusion, or warm air pouring directly into the egg chamber c) forced draft, where the air is driven by fans or agitated by paddles. Out of these hot air flat type and hot air mammoths are very common.

Management of incubators during incubation

i) Leveling of incubator: if leveling is not proper the damper rod will not function normally, thus will affect the temperature regulation of the incubator.

ii) Sanitation and fumigation: incubator should be maintained in a clean and hygienic manner. For routine fumigation add about 50 cc of 40% fornmal dehyde to 25-30gms of potassium permanganate crystals.

iii) Regulating incubator: a trial run of the incubator at the beginning of each hatching season, regardless of the incubator new or old is must.

iiii) Placing eggs: arrange eggs in egg tray in rows either on their sides in the case of flat type incubators or upright, with the broad end up in cabinet type machines.

v) Regulating temperature: most satisfactory results are secured with a temperature of 101 oF during the first week, followed by 102 oF during the second week and 103 oF in the third week.

vi) Sufficient ventilation: when the amount CO2 in the air exceeds 2%, the hatchability decreases. On 21st day of incubation about 140-150 times as much air is required as on the first day.

vii) Turning of eggs: eggs should be turned daily. The number of turnings during the early stages of incubation should 4to 6 times daily. Cease turning after 18th day of incubation.

viii) Testing eggs: incubated eggs should be tested (candled) on the 7th and 14th day.